Launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 2009, the Kepler telescope, named after the astronomer Johannes Kepler, is a telescope aboard a space observatory in a heliocentric orbit trailing Earth. With a much higher field of vision than the Hubble telescope, the telescope is designed to survey a portion of the Milky Way with the specific objective of determining the properties of planets beyond the Solar System.
The Kepler telescope utilizes a photometer as its sole scientific instrument that monitors the light emitted by distant stars without the refractive interference of the Earth’s atmosphere. The data collected is transmitted to Earth, where it is analyzed to detect the minute dimming of the star’s light as exoplanets – planets other than those of our solar system – pass in between the telescope and the star using a method called doppler spectroscopy. All properties of the planets are analyzed according to the analysis of the properties of the light from the star. The method is able to ascertain properties such as the presence of the planet and its size, a planet’s proximity to and orbit around its star, the minimum number of planets in a star system, the properties of the stars themselves, and certain physical properties of giant-planets close to the star.
For example, using doppler spectroscopy, a method of analyzing wavelengths of the characteristic spectral lines of a light source, one could evaluate the chemical composition of the star based on the spectral signature (representation in the colour spectrum) of the chemical components. Measuring the chemical composition of the planet involves the readings from when the planet passes in front of the star subtracted from the star’s cumulative chemical composition. However, without empirical evidence that proves the hypotheses conclusively, nothing can be said with absolute certainty about the chemical composition of the exoplanets discovered. With the passage of time, we could hope for a more complete and proven hypotheses of the properties of exoplanets, existence of which are being increasingly revealed by Kepler telescope and more.
One science in particular shall be truly tested if the hope that has been generated from the recent finding of 10 more Earth-like planets in the goldilocks zone is realized – the science of biology –presently unique to Earth, unlike many other scientific laws. The ‘goldilocks zone’ for exoplanets represents its potential habitability as when the planet orbits in such a distance from its star that it can be said to receive just the right amount of energy from its star to be able to support life.
One major stipulation for measuring this zone for scientists is the possibility for the exoplanet to support liquid water. Being too close to the star might cause water to vapourize and being too far could freeze it. In the goldilocks zone, scientists are hoping that the exoplanet might be able to support water – the chemical solvent required by all life on Earth.
However, this can be variable. The recent discovery of liquid methane seas in Saturn’s moon Titan by the spacecraft Cassini, that could cause rain to fall like snowflakes in Titan’s low gravity atmosphere, point towards interesting possibilities. Methane does not naturally occur in a liquid state on earth, but in a gaseous state. Titan’s extremely low temperatures and hydrocarbon atmosphere allows liquid methane seas, and this points towards ways of looking at alien exoplanets.
Out of the planets newly validated by NASA, 550 out of the confirmed 2,335 exoplanets are rocky worlds. Out of these, 21 are worlds where the temperatures based on the energy supplied by the star could be just right for liquid water to be present on the surface (NASA, 2017). This raises the hope for life to evolve on planets such as these. Although there is no method of conclusively proving the presence of life on these planets, there is a theory based on the possibilities for discovering life within the Solar System.
Considering that in the near future, humanity succeeds in finding even microbial life within the Solar System, with NASA’s focus on finding life based on the presence of liquids on planets, the theory proposes that this would open up the possibility that life might indeed be plentiful throughout the universe.
Humanity’s understanding of planetary schematics is progressing steadily with Kepler’s findings. Among its significant discoveries is the exoplanet Kepler-452b in 2014, which scientists expect to be similar to Earth in many respects due to its location within the habitable zone, although it is located about 1,400 light years away from Earth. In April in 2017, scientists discovered a super-Earth, named LHS-1140b, that orbits a red dwarf star and is 40 light years away.
These and more discoveries by telescopes such as the Kepler telescope, are building up a profile of diversity in exoplanets, with previously unknown planet varieties such as super-Earths and mini-Neptunes. Kepler has only explored a tiny patch of the Milky Way called the Cygnus Field – with about 1,50,000 stars (NASA, 2017). Given the about 300 billion stars estimated to be present in the Milky Way, the amazing diversity from the initial observations point towards the fact that the nuances of the universe might be more interesting than could be imagined.
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- In the Large States category (overall), Chhattisgarh ranks 1st, followed by Odisha and Telangana, whereas, towards the bottom are Maharashtra at 16th, Assam at 17th and Gujarat at 18th. Gujarat is one State that has seen startling performance ranking 5th in the PAI 2021 Index outperforming traditionally good performing States like Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, but ranks last in terms of Delta
- In the Small States category (overall), Nagaland tops, followed by Mizoram and Tripura. Towards the tail end of the overall Delta ranking is Uttarakhand (9th), Arunachal Pradesh (10th) and Meghalaya (11th). Nagaland despite being a poor performer in the PAI 2021 Index has come out to be the top performer in Delta, similarly, Mizoram’s performance in Delta is also reflected in it’s ranking in the PAI 2021 Index
- In terms of Equity, in the Large States category, Chhattisgarh has the best Delta rate on Equity indicators, this is also reflected in the performance of Chhattisgarh in the Equity Pillar where it ranks 4th. Following Chhattisgarh is Odisha ranking 2nd in Delta-Equity ranking, but ranks 17th in the Equity Pillar of PAI 2021. Telangana ranks 3rd in Delta-Equity ranking even though it is not a top performer in this Pillar in the overall PAI 2021 Index. Jharkhand (16th), Uttar Pradesh (17th) and Assam (18th) rank at the bottom with Uttar Pradesh’s performance in line with the PAI 2021 Index
- Odisha and Nagaland have shown the best year-on-year improvement under 12 Key Development indicators.
- In the 60:40 division States, the top three performers are Kerala, Goa and Tamil Nadu and, the bottom three performers are Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bihar.
- In the 90:10 division States, the top three performers were Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Mizoram; and, the bottom three performers are Manipur, Assam and Meghalaya.
- Among the 60:40 division States, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are the top three performers and Tamil Nadu, Telangana and Delhi appear as the bottom three performers.
- Among the 90:10 division States, the top three performers are Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland; and, the bottom three performers are Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh
- Among the 60:40 division States, Goa, West Bengal and Delhi appear as the top three performers and Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Bihar appear as the bottom three performers.
- Among the 90:10 division States, Mizoram, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura were the top three performers and Jammu & Kashmir, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh were the bottom three performers
- West Bengal, Bihar and Tamil Nadu were the top three States amongst the 60:40 division States; while Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan appeared as the bottom three performers
- In the case of 90:10 division States, Mizoram, Assam and Tripura were the top three performers and Nagaland, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttarakhand featured as the bottom three
- Among the 60:40 division States, the top three performers are Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa and the bottom three performers are Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Goa
- In the 90:10 division States, the top three performers are Mizoram, Sikkim and Nagaland and the bottom three performers are Manipur and Assam
In a diverse country like India, where each State is socially, culturally, economically, and politically distinct, measuring Governance becomes increasingly tricky. The Public Affairs Index (PAI 2021) is a scientifically rigorous, data-based framework that measures the quality of governance at the Sub-national level and ranks the States and Union Territories (UTs) of India on a Composite Index (CI).
States are classified into two categories – Large and Small – using population as the criteria.
In PAI 2021, PAC defined three significant pillars that embody Governance – Growth, Equity, and Sustainability. Each of the three Pillars is circumscribed by five governance praxis Themes.
The themes include – Voice and Accountability, Government Effectiveness, Rule of Law, Regulatory Quality and Control of Corruption.
At the bottom of the pyramid, 43 component indicators are mapped to 14 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are relevant to the States and UTs.
This forms the foundation of the conceptual framework of PAI 2021. The choice of the 43 indicators that go into the calculation of the CI were dictated by the objective of uncovering the complexity and multidimensional character of development governance
The Equity Principle
The Equity Pillar of the PAI 2021 Index analyses the inclusiveness impact at the Sub-national level in the country; inclusiveness in terms of the welfare of a society that depends primarily on establishing that all people feel that they have a say in the governance and are not excluded from the mainstream policy framework.
This requires all individuals and communities, but particularly the most vulnerable, to have an opportunity to improve or maintain their wellbeing. This chapter of PAI 2021 reflects the performance of States and UTs during the pandemic and questions the governance infrastructure in the country, analysing the effectiveness of schemes and the general livelihood of the people in terms of Equity.
Growth and its Discontents
Growth in its multidimensional form encompasses the essence of access to and the availability and optimal utilisation of resources. By resources, PAI 2021 refer to human resources, infrastructure and the budgetary allocations. Capacity building of an economy cannot take place if all the key players of growth do not drive development. The multiplier effects of better health care, improved educational outcomes, increased capital accumulation and lower unemployment levels contribute magnificently in the growth and development of the States.
The Pursuit Of Sustainability
The Sustainability Pillar analyses the access to and usage of resources that has an impact on environment, economy and humankind. The Pillar subsumes two themes and uses seven indicators to measure the effectiveness of government efforts with regards to Sustainability.
The Curious Case Of The Delta
The Delta Analysis presents the results on the State performance on year-on-year improvement. The rankings are measured as the Delta value over the last five to 10 years of data available for 12 Key Development Indicators (KDI). In PAI 2021, 12 indicators across the three Pillars of Equity (five indicators), Growth (five indicators) and Sustainability (two indicators). These KDIs are the outcome indicators crucial to assess Human Development. The Performance in the Delta Analysis is then compared to the Overall PAI 2021 Index.
Key Findings:-
In the Scheme of Things
The Scheme Analysis adds an additional dimension to ranking of the States on their governance. It attempts to complement the Governance Model by trying to understand the developmental activities undertaken by State Governments in the form of schemes. It also tries to understand whether better performance of States in schemes reflect in better governance.
The Centrally Sponsored schemes that were analysed are National Health Mission (NHM), Umbrella Integrated Child Development Services scheme (ICDS), Mahatma Gandh National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SmSA) and MidDay Meal Scheme (MDMS).
National Health Mission (NHM)
INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (ICDS)
MID- DAY MEAL SCHEME (MDMS)
SAMAGRA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (SMSA)
MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE SCHEME (MGNREGS)