Coastal and marine ecosystems are found in 123 countries around the world. The marine habitats include a wide range of ecosystems such as the shallow coral reef ecosystem, mesophotic reef ecosystem, soft sediment ocean floor ecosystem to coastal estuarine ecosystem, saline wetland ecosystem, mangrove ecosystem, gulf waters, creeks, tidal flats, deltaic plains etc.
Marine biodiversity includes these wide ranges of ecosystems from coastal areas to the deep sea. Being one of the 17 Mega-diverse countries, India represents 4 hotspots among the 32 biodiversity hotspots of the world. The geographical location of India between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is among the most important reasons for the enormous biological diversity and supports them in accordance with conductive climatic factors.
MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
Mangrove ecosystems occur mostly in the inter-tidal region between mean sea level to the highest spring tide in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. India’s mangrove cover is sporadic with a total area covering 4,627.63 sq. km. among 12 maritime states and union territories. A total of 125 species including 39 species of true mangroves and 86 species of associates are recorded in India. The highest species diversity is recorded from Odisha with a total of 101 species while Gujarat harbors 40 species. Mangrove habitats serve as one of the best nursery grounds for the development and aggregation of several faunal species. A total of 3111 species of mangrove associated fauna were recorded from India.
SEAWEED ECOSYSTEMS
Seaweeds are the marine macro algae under 3 phyla or divisions, namely, Brown Algae i.e., Phaeophyta, Red Algae i.e.,Rhodophyta and Green Algae i.e., Chlorophyta. Most of the importance of seaweed is derived from its delicacy and being adopted by coastal dwellers in several counties for consumption as food. They are a good source of nutrients and are used as fertilizer for agricultural purposes. Seaweeds contain plenty of minerals which can be extracted to meet the necessary requirements. The therapeutic applications of seaweeds cover a wide range where these are used for the purposes of treatment.
A total of 936 species of marine algae were recorded from Indian coastal and marine environments. This ecosystem provides massive infrastructure for many associated faunal communities but the studies do not span all of the coastal regions.
SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEMS
Seagrasses are commonly known as the flowering group of plants. A total of 14 species of seagrasses are reported in Indian waters. The ecological contribution of this ecosystem towards niche maintenance is remarkable in coastal waters situated at the continental shelf region. It increases the complexity of life and provides a healthy place to live for a wide range of species. It provides the basic strata for all the dwelling organisms as a nursery ground for reproduction, pre and post larval settlement as well as protection for those animals against oceanic currents and sedimentation. A total of 1059 species of animals belonging to 18 groups were reported from the seagrass ecosystems in the Indian seas which harbor 5.18 per cent of India’s marine fauna.
CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS
Coral reefs are among the most ecologically fragile environments of the globe. These biological organisms are abundant and very common in marine environments, and have been known to natural historians for millennia. Despite covering less than 0.2 per cent of the total area of oceans, coral reefs are noted for some of the highest levels of biodiversity on Earth and house 25 per cent of all marine creatures. It has been estimated that about 1-9 million species live on coral reefs.
The coral reef ecosystem contributes various services such as biological, ecological, physiological services and economic services for the sustainable development as well as protection of the marine and coastal habitats. India represents a total 57.10 sq. km. of coral cover. The major reef areas of India are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Lakshadweep and Gujarat while small patches of reef have also been recorded from Gopalpur-on-Sea, Kerala, Netrani Island of Karnataka, Goa and Malvan coast. Most of the marine faunal communities are recorded from the reef habitats of India.
FAUNAL DIVERSITY
The exploration of marine biodiversity in India was initiated long back and it is perhaps the first among the Asian countries. The studies on the marine faunal communities of India were documented from the shallow regions of the ocean floor while ample areas of the seas are to be explored for the documentation of several unknown faunal communities. A total of 20,444 species of fauna have been recorded from India’s marine and coastal waters. India contributes to 6.43 per cent of global marine biodiversity and 7.01 per cent of global faunal diversity.
PROTECTED MARINE FAUNA
A total of 733 areas (103 National Parks, 532 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 26 Community Reserves and 67 Conservation Reserves) have been declared as protected areas in India. 18 biosphere reserves have also been declared to protect entire ecosystems. According to a series of notifications issued under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, so far 1180 species are listed as protected marine animals of India.
Fig: Numbers of Protected Marine Species in India
THREATS TO COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
NATURAL: Storms and wave energies may be seen as typhoons, quakes, and tsunamis. These are natural catastrophic events which may lead to the destruction of marine biodiversity.
ANTHROPOGENIC: Sedimentation from developmental activities, eutrophication from sewage and agriculture, physical impact of maritime activities, dredging, destructive fishing practices, pollution from industrial sources, climate change, introduction of invasive species, UV- radiation, carbonate mineral saturation, habitat alteration, unregulated tourism, chemical stress, oil spills, anchoring and bacterial effects.
LEGISLATION
WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972: Provides protection to a wide number of animals against collection.
ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986: Prohibits use of any parts of selected marine faunal communities against construction and other purposes.
COASTAL REGULATION ZONE NOTIFICATION, 1991: Regulates onshore development activities to protect coastal environments.
CITES: Restricts the trade of threatened marine fauna in order to avoid unsustainable utilization under Appendix II.
UNCLOS, MARPOL, and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants: Regulation of marine pollution.
Recent Posts
- In the Large States category (overall), Chhattisgarh ranks 1st, followed by Odisha and Telangana, whereas, towards the bottom are Maharashtra at 16th, Assam at 17th and Gujarat at 18th. Gujarat is one State that has seen startling performance ranking 5th in the PAI 2021 Index outperforming traditionally good performing States like Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, but ranks last in terms of Delta
- In the Small States category (overall), Nagaland tops, followed by Mizoram and Tripura. Towards the tail end of the overall Delta ranking is Uttarakhand (9th), Arunachal Pradesh (10th) and Meghalaya (11th). Nagaland despite being a poor performer in the PAI 2021 Index has come out to be the top performer in Delta, similarly, Mizoram’s performance in Delta is also reflected in it’s ranking in the PAI 2021 Index
- In terms of Equity, in the Large States category, Chhattisgarh has the best Delta rate on Equity indicators, this is also reflected in the performance of Chhattisgarh in the Equity Pillar where it ranks 4th. Following Chhattisgarh is Odisha ranking 2nd in Delta-Equity ranking, but ranks 17th in the Equity Pillar of PAI 2021. Telangana ranks 3rd in Delta-Equity ranking even though it is not a top performer in this Pillar in the overall PAI 2021 Index. Jharkhand (16th), Uttar Pradesh (17th) and Assam (18th) rank at the bottom with Uttar Pradesh’s performance in line with the PAI 2021 Index
- Odisha and Nagaland have shown the best year-on-year improvement under 12 Key Development indicators.
- In the 60:40 division States, the top three performers are Kerala, Goa and Tamil Nadu and, the bottom three performers are Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bihar.
- In the 90:10 division States, the top three performers were Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Mizoram; and, the bottom three performers are Manipur, Assam and Meghalaya.
- Among the 60:40 division States, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are the top three performers and Tamil Nadu, Telangana and Delhi appear as the bottom three performers.
- Among the 90:10 division States, the top three performers are Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland; and, the bottom three performers are Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh
- Among the 60:40 division States, Goa, West Bengal and Delhi appear as the top three performers and Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Bihar appear as the bottom three performers.
- Among the 90:10 division States, Mizoram, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura were the top three performers and Jammu & Kashmir, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh were the bottom three performers
- West Bengal, Bihar and Tamil Nadu were the top three States amongst the 60:40 division States; while Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan appeared as the bottom three performers
- In the case of 90:10 division States, Mizoram, Assam and Tripura were the top three performers and Nagaland, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttarakhand featured as the bottom three
- Among the 60:40 division States, the top three performers are Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa and the bottom three performers are Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Goa
- In the 90:10 division States, the top three performers are Mizoram, Sikkim and Nagaland and the bottom three performers are Manipur and Assam
In a diverse country like India, where each State is socially, culturally, economically, and politically distinct, measuring Governance becomes increasingly tricky. The Public Affairs Index (PAI 2021) is a scientifically rigorous, data-based framework that measures the quality of governance at the Sub-national level and ranks the States and Union Territories (UTs) of India on a Composite Index (CI).
States are classified into two categories – Large and Small – using population as the criteria.
In PAI 2021, PAC defined three significant pillars that embody Governance – Growth, Equity, and Sustainability. Each of the three Pillars is circumscribed by five governance praxis Themes.
The themes include – Voice and Accountability, Government Effectiveness, Rule of Law, Regulatory Quality and Control of Corruption.
At the bottom of the pyramid, 43 component indicators are mapped to 14 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are relevant to the States and UTs.
This forms the foundation of the conceptual framework of PAI 2021. The choice of the 43 indicators that go into the calculation of the CI were dictated by the objective of uncovering the complexity and multidimensional character of development governance
The Equity Principle
The Equity Pillar of the PAI 2021 Index analyses the inclusiveness impact at the Sub-national level in the country; inclusiveness in terms of the welfare of a society that depends primarily on establishing that all people feel that they have a say in the governance and are not excluded from the mainstream policy framework.
This requires all individuals and communities, but particularly the most vulnerable, to have an opportunity to improve or maintain their wellbeing. This chapter of PAI 2021 reflects the performance of States and UTs during the pandemic and questions the governance infrastructure in the country, analysing the effectiveness of schemes and the general livelihood of the people in terms of Equity.
Growth and its Discontents
Growth in its multidimensional form encompasses the essence of access to and the availability and optimal utilisation of resources. By resources, PAI 2021 refer to human resources, infrastructure and the budgetary allocations. Capacity building of an economy cannot take place if all the key players of growth do not drive development. The multiplier effects of better health care, improved educational outcomes, increased capital accumulation and lower unemployment levels contribute magnificently in the growth and development of the States.
The Pursuit Of Sustainability
The Sustainability Pillar analyses the access to and usage of resources that has an impact on environment, economy and humankind. The Pillar subsumes two themes and uses seven indicators to measure the effectiveness of government efforts with regards to Sustainability.
The Curious Case Of The Delta
The Delta Analysis presents the results on the State performance on year-on-year improvement. The rankings are measured as the Delta value over the last five to 10 years of data available for 12 Key Development Indicators (KDI). In PAI 2021, 12 indicators across the three Pillars of Equity (five indicators), Growth (five indicators) and Sustainability (two indicators). These KDIs are the outcome indicators crucial to assess Human Development. The Performance in the Delta Analysis is then compared to the Overall PAI 2021 Index.
Key Findings:-
In the Scheme of Things
The Scheme Analysis adds an additional dimension to ranking of the States on their governance. It attempts to complement the Governance Model by trying to understand the developmental activities undertaken by State Governments in the form of schemes. It also tries to understand whether better performance of States in schemes reflect in better governance.
The Centrally Sponsored schemes that were analysed are National Health Mission (NHM), Umbrella Integrated Child Development Services scheme (ICDS), Mahatma Gandh National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SmSA) and MidDay Meal Scheme (MDMS).
National Health Mission (NHM)
INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (ICDS)
MID- DAY MEAL SCHEME (MDMS)
SAMAGRA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (SMSA)
MAHATMA GANDHI NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE SCHEME (MGNREGS)