Biodiversity Profile Of India:-
India, a megadiverse country with only 2.4% of the world’s land area, accounts for 7-8% of all recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals
It is situated at the tri-junction of the Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan and Palaearctic realms, all of which support rich biodiversity.
Being one of the 17 identified megadiverse countries, India has 10 biogeographic zones and is home to 8.58% of the mammalian species documented so far, with the corresponding figures for avian species being 13.66%, for reptiles 7.91%, for amphibians 4.66%, for fishes 11.72% and for plants 11.80%
Four of the 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots, namely the Himalaya, Indo-Burma, the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka and Sundaland, are represented in India
Bio-geographic classification and biodiversity characterization:-
India is amongst the few countries that have developed a bio-geographic classification based on which conservation planning has been taken up. This has been done to ensure
that different bio-geographic zones are represented in area-based conservation approaches at the landscape level.
This classification uses four levels of planning units: the biogeographic zone, the biotic province, the land region and the biome.
The Biogeographic Zone:-
Large distinctive units of similar ecology, biome representation, community and species, e.g., The Himalaya, The Western Ghats.
The biotic province:-
Secondary units within a zone, giving weight to particular communities separated by dispersal barriers or gradual change in environmental factors,e.g., North-west and West Himalaya either side of the Sutlej River.
The Land Region:-
A tertiary set of units within a province, indicating different landforms, e.g., Aravalli Mountains and Malwa Plateau in Gujarat-Rajwara Province.
The Biome:-
A biome is an ecological unit, not a bio-geographic unit, such as swamp/wetland or temperate broad leaved forest.
Biodiversity hotspots:-
The idea of hotspots was first mooted in 1988 by ecologist Norman Myers, who defined a hotspot as an area of exceptional plant, animal and microbe wealth that is under threat. The key criteria for determining a hotspot are endemism (the presence of species found nowhere else on earth) and degree of threat.
Out of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots, four are present in India.
1)THE HIMALAYA –
Western and Eastern Himalaya form part of Himalayan global biodiversity hotspot.
The sudden rise of the Himalayan mountains from less than 500 metres to more than 8,000 metres results in a diversity of ecosystems, from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broad-leaf forests along the foothills to temperate broad-leaf forests in the middle elevations, mixed conifer and conifer forests in the higher hills, and alpine meadows 2 above the tree line.
This enormous mountain range, which extends over nearly 750,000 km , lies in two separate regions of India, namely the Eastern Himalaya and the Western Himalaya. Charismatic large mammals such as the tiger and elephant are found in the foothills and Terai region. The Snow leopard, Musk deer, Himalayan tahr, Blue sheep, Black bear, Chir pheasant, Himalayan monal and Western tragopan are some of the characteristic fauna of the mountains. Of the estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalaya hotspot, 71 genera and approximately 3160 species are endemic.
The Eastern Himalayan region is exceptionally rich in diversity and endemism and hence is of great significance. The Eastern Himalaya on the whole has an estimated 9000 plant species, out of which 3500 (39%) are endemic. In the Indian portion of the Eastern Himalaya there occur 5800 plant species, approximately 2000 (36%) of which are endemic. The area is also rich in wild relatives of plants of economic significance, for example, rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane. The region is also a rich centre of avian diversity-more than 60% of the bird species found in India have been recorded in the North-east. The region also harbours 35 endemic reptilian species including two genera of lizards and two turtle species. Out of 341 Indian amphibian species recorded so far, at least 68 species are known to occur in the North-east, 20 of which are endemic
Tragapon
Snow leopard
Himalyan Monal-
2)THE WESTERN GHATS-
Part of Western Ghats-SriLanka global biodiversity hotspot.
The Western Ghats are part of the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka global hotspot, running roughly in a North-south direction for about 1500 kilometres parallel to the coast bordering the Arabian Sea. The importance of the Western Ghats in terms of their biodiversity can be seen from the known inventory of their plant and animal groups and the levels of endemism in these taxa. Western Ghats harbour 7388 species of flowering plants. Of these, 5584 species are indigenous, 377 are exotic naturalised and 1427 are cultivated or planted. Of the indigenous 5584 species, 2242 species are Indian endemics (found only in India) and 1261 are the Western Ghats endemics. Apart from the above, there are 586 taxa with subspecies and variety status, bringing total taxa in the Western Ghats to 7974.
The Western Ghats region harbours the largest global populations of the Asian elephant and possibly of other mammals such as the tiger, dhole and gaur. The Western Ghats also support a number of wild relatives of cultivated plants, including pepper, cardamom, mango, jackfruit and sandal.
Thirty nine sites in the Western Ghats in the States of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra were inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2012, considering their outstanding universal value and high levels of endemism.
3)NORTH-EAST-
Part of Indo-Burma global biodiversity hotspot.
Some parts of the North-eastern region of India, excluding the Himalayan region, are contiguous with the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, centred on the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and comprising Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and parts of Southern China.
The topography of the hotspot is complex and is characterised by a series of North-south mountain ranges that descend from the Himalayan chain and its South-eastern
extensions.
Indo-Burma probably supports the highest diversity of freshwater turtle in the world. The hot spot also has a remarkable freshwater fish fauna, with 1262 documented species, accounting for about 10% of the world total, including 566 endemics
4)NICOBAR ISLANDS-
Part of the Sundaland global biodiversity hotspot.
The Nicobar Islands are part of the Sundaland hotspot, which includes a small portion of Southern Thailand;nearly all of Malaysia; Singapore, at the tip of the Malay Peninsula; all of Brunei Darussalam; and all of the western half of the mega-diverse country of Indonesia,including Kalimantan.
These islands are fringed by one of the most spectacular reefs of the Indian Ocean region and are considered to be globally significant.
The Nicobar Islands are characterised by an absence of large mammals and the presence of a significant number of endemics, such as Nicobar tree shrew (Tupaia nicobarica), among the island’s vertebrates.
The only primate, the Nicobar Crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), occurs in the Southern group of the Nicobar Islands.
Importance of biodiversity and its implications for human well-being:-
Biodiversity underpins the form and function of ecosystems, which are of high value due to the life-supporting services they provide that meet human needs, both material and non-material.
They are provisioning services, such as supplying of fuel and fodder, and regulating services, such as carbon sequestration and prevention of soil erosion. Moreover, biodiversity has non-use or existence value.
In the Indian context especially, a range of socio-cultural values are derived from biodiversity that are philosophical, cultural and religious. Biodiversity and ecosystem diversity are reflected in the cultural and religious diversity of India through the varied values attached to biodiversity components and landscapes. India’s many traditional knowledge systems and ethno-medicinal practices are based on a close understanding of and dependence on biodiversity. The cultural or religious importance of species and designation of sacred areas are well-known in India.
Marine biodiversity:-
India’s coastal and marine areas hold many biological treasures. Dense mangrove forest of Sunderbans, the world’s largest congregations of nesting turtles in Odisha, beautiful seagrass beds in Palk Bay, dolphins and dugongs in the Gulf of Mannar, majestic whale sharks in the Gulf of Kachchh and some of the world’s most beautiful coral reefs are just a few examples of the treasures of India’s coastal and marine biodiversity
Endemism:-
Forests of India:-
The forests in India are spread over an area of 2 692,027 km , covering 21.05% of the geographical area of the country.
There are 16 major forest types and 251 sub-types
The forest cover of the country has been classified on the basis of the tree canopy density into pre-defined classes: Very Dense Forest (VDF), Moderately Dense Forest
(MDF) and Open Forest (OF).
Forest cover percentage-
a) VDF – 2.54
b) MDF -9.76
c) OF – 8.75
Wetlands of India
India is bestowed with a rich diversity of wetlands, ranging from high altitude lakes of the Himalayas, floodplains and marshes of the Gangetic – Bramhaputra alluvial plains, saline flats of Green Indian Desert to extensive mangroves marshes bordering the country’s East and West coastline.
Roughly equal to 4.6% of India’s land area is wetland.
India is a signatory to Ramsar Convention and is committed to ‘wise use’ of all wetlands in her territory. As on date, 26 sites have been designated as Wetlands of International importance under the Convention.
Important Wetlands of India:-
- Ashtamudi Wetland – Kerala
- Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary – Uttar pradesh
- Bhoj Lake – Madhya Pradesh
- Chilika Lagoon – Odisha
- Deepor Beel – Assam
- Kolleru Lake – Andhra Pradesh
- Loktak Lake – Manipur
- Nalsarovar – Gujrat
- North Reef Island Sanctuary – Andaman & Nicobar Islands
- Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary – Tamilndau
- Pong Dam Lake – Himachal Pradesh
- Sambhar Lake – Rajasthan
- Sundarbans – West Bengal
- Tawa Reservoir – Madhya Pradesh
- Tso Moriri – Jammu & Kashmir
- Udhwa Lake (Bird Sanctuary) – Jharkhand
- Wular Lake – Jammu & Kashmir
- Wandur Marine National Park – Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Wetlands are one of the crucial natural resources. Wetlands are areas of land that are either temporarily or permanently covered by water. This means that a wetland is neither truly aquatic nor terrestrial; it is possible that wetlands can be both at the same time depending on seasonal variability. Thus, wetlands exhibit enormous diversity according to their genesis, geographical location, water regime and chemistry, dominant plants and soil or sediment characteristics.
Because of their transitional nature, the boundaries of wetlands are often difficult to define. Wetlands do, however, share a few attributes common to all forms. Of these, hydrological structure (the dynamics of water supply, throughput, storage and loss) is most fundamental to the nature of a wetland system. It is the presence of water for a significant period of time, which is principally responsible for the development of a wetland
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment estimates conservatively that wetlands cover seven percent of the earth’s surface and deliver 45% of the world’s natural productivity and ecosystem services of which the benefits are estimated at $20 trillion a year
Provisioning services: The resources or products provided by ecosystems, such as food, raw materials (wood), genetic resources, medicinal resources, ornamental resources (skin, shells, flowers).
Regulating services: Ecosystems maintain the essential ecological processes and life support systems, like gas and climate regulation, water supply and regulation, waste treatment, pollination, etc.
Cultural and Amenity services: Ecosystems are a source of inspiration to human culture and education throughout recreation, cultural, artistic, spiritual and historic information, science and education.
Supporting services: Ecosystems provide habitat for flora and fauna in order to maintain biological and genetic diversity.
Mangroves, corals and seagrasses:-
India has a long coastline of about 7,517 km in length- 2 consisting of 2,383 km of extensive coral reef beds.
The coral reef beds in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are inhabited by several rare and threatened species such as the dugong, the Hawksbill turtle and Giant clams, which indicate the health of these ecosystems.
A total of 478 species of corals belonging to 89 genera have so far been recorded from India, forming 60% of the known hermatypic genera of the world.
The mangrove cover of India (2.69% of the global mangrove area and 8% of Asia’s mangroves) is home to umbrella species such as the tiger as well as many threatened species such as the River terrapin, Gangetic river dolphin, Estuarine crocodile and Fishing cat.
*Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat. Species conservation can be subjective because it is hard to determine the status of many species.
About 59% of this cover is on the East coast, along the Bay of Bengal, 28% on the West coast, bordering the Arabian Sea, and 13% on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The largest mangrove habitat is found in the Sundarbans, West Bengal. It is the single largest block 2 (>10,000 km ) of tidal halophytic mangroves in the world.
Seagrasses are submerged aquatic vegetation specialised to live in marine environments.They are acting as the carbon sink in the coastal environment by sequestering
12% of the carbon fixed in the global oceans.
In India, extensive seagrass meadows are reported from Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kachchh, Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar group of islands.
Marine protected area network in India:-
India has a vast coastline of 7517 km, of which 5423 km is in peninsular India and 2094 km in the Andaman, Nicobar 2 and Lakshadweep Islands, with an exclusive economic zone of 2.02 million km . This coastline also supports a huge human population, which is dependent on the rich coastal and marine resources. It is estimated that nearly 250 million
people live within a swath 50 km wide along the coastline of India.
Therefore, the ecological services of the marine and coastal ecosystems of India play a vital role in India’s economic growth and in ensuring human well-being. The MPA network in India has been used as a tool to manage natural marine resources for biodiversity conservation and for the well-being of people dependent on these resources. India has designated four legal categories of PAs, National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves. Scientific monitoring and traditional observations confirm that depleted natural marine resources are getting restored and/or pristine ecological conditions have been sustained in well managed MPAs.
There are 23 MPAs present in peninsular India and more than 100 MPAs in the country’s islands. Of the 23 MPAs in the peninsula, Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Sundarbans National Park, Gulf of Kachchh National Park, Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Chilika Wildlife Sanctuary have unique marine biodiversity and provide a range of ecological services to the local communities. These 23 MPAs cover an area of about 6158 km , which is 3.85% of the total area covered under the entire PA network of India 2 or less than 0.2% of the total land area of India. The total area of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is 4947 km , of 2 which 1510 km is protected under the provisions of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. There are 105 PAs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, of which about 100 include marine areas. These MPAs cover more than 30% of the terrestrial area of the islands and protect more than 40% of the coastal habitat. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park and Rani Jhansi Marine National Park are important MPAs here. In the Lakshadweep group of islands, Pitti Island (0.012 km ) is the only island having the status of an MPA.
Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs):-
Biosphere Reserves (BRs):-
National Biosphere Reserve Programme in 1986 with the primary aim of conservation of an entire range of living resources and their ecological foundations, along with sustainable use of natural resources and improvement of the livelihoods of local inhabitants. This programme also had the objective of ensuring community participation for ffective management of biodiversity resources and integration of traditional knowledge and scientific research for conservation, education and training as a part of the overall management of BRs. Considering the diversity of ecosystems and recognising the importance of BRs in ensuring long-term conservation and sustainable use of India’s
representative and diverse biological diversity, so far 18 BRs have been notified by the GoI. Globally, the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) has designated a total of
621 BRs, of which 9 are in India. These are the Achanakmar-Amarkantak, Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar, Nanda Devi, Sundarban, Simlipal, Pachmarhi, Nokrek and Great Nicobar BR.
Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
Birds are good indicators of ecosystem health. The IBA programme of BirdLife International aims to identify, monitor and protect a global network of IBAs for conservation of the world’s birds and other biodiversity. The IBAs are conservation areas of international significance for conservation of birds at the global, regional or sub-regional level. According to BirdLife International, designation of IBAs is based on standardised criteria, namely (i) hold significant numbers of one or more globally threatened bird species, (ii) be one of a set of sites that together hold a suite of restricted-range species or biome-restricted.(iii) have exceptionally large numbers of
migratory or congregatory birds.
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS; www.bnhs.org) and BirdLife International have identified 465 IBAs in India
Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs)
KBAs are nationally identified sites of global significance. In India, the identification of KBAs in the Western Ghats was initiated in 2003.KBAs comprise an ‘umbrella’ which includes globally important sites for different taxa and realms: IBAs, Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs), Important Sites for Freshwater/Marine Biodiversity; and Alliance
for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites.
Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE)The AZE (www.zeroextinction.org) is a global alliance, which identifies threatened species (CR and EN), based on the global IUCN Red Listing, occurring in a single location, as the highest priority in initiating on-the ground conservation action.
Currently there are 19 species recognized by the AZE in India, The Zoo Outreach Organization (ZOO; www.zooreach.org) and the Indian Alliance for Zero Extinction (In AZE; www.zooreach.org/indianaze/ indianaze.html) have identified a further 40 species and sites based on the recent assessments of freshwater fish and aquatic plants.
Community Conservation Areas (CCAs)
CCAs can be defined as ‘natural ecosystems (forest/marine/wetlands/grasslands/others), including those with minimum to substantial human influence, containing significant wildlife and biodiversity values, being conserved by communities for cultural, religious, livelihood, or political purposes, using customary laws or other effective means’.
A total of 141 CCAs covering a total area of ca. 157,046 ha have been identified for conservation measures.
Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs)
India has one of the richest and oldest medicinal plant cultures of the world. The so far estimated number of 6560 species of medicinal plants of India are a great bio-cultural resource Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health and Traditions.
The uniqueness of the Indian medical heritage draws from two streams of knowledge, folk and codified stream, which are coexisting living traditions that have historically
enjoyed a symbiotic relationship. India is a global leader in in-situ conservation of medicinal plants having established the largest in-situ conservation network for medicinal plants in the tropical world.
So far, 110 MPCAs, each of an average size of 200 ha, have been set up across 13 States of India.
Flagship Species of India
Tiger:-
The Tiger Panthera tigris is an umbrella species for conservation of the biota of a majority of the eco-regions in Asia. Its role as a top predator is vital in regulating and maintaining ecological processes and systems. India is home to over 50% of the world’s wild tigers in spite of having a growing human population of over a billion.
Major landscape complexes that inhabit tiger:-
1)Shiva-Gangetic Plain Landscape
2)Central Indian Landscape Complex and Eastern Ghats Landscape
3)Western Ghats Landscape
4)North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plans
Elephant:-
The Elephant (Elephas maximus) has enjoyed a unique association with the people of India since ancient times and is worshiped in Hindu and Buddhist cultures. It occurs in the central and Southern Western Ghats, North-east India, Eastern India and Northern India and in some parts of Southern peninsular India.
It is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna(CITES).
In 1992 GoI launched Project Elephant, a flagship conservation project that aims to conserve the elephant and its habitat across 10 major landscapes (designated as Project
Elephant Ranges), mitigate elephant – human conflict, and protect the animal from poaching for ivory.
Asiatic Wild ass:-
The Asiatic Wild ass Equus hemionus khur is restricted to the Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat and its surrounding areas. The population of this sub-species has been on the increase since the 1990s.
Gharial :-
Gharial is Critically Endangered (IUCN), and listed in Schedule I Wildlife Protection Act (WPA, 1972). About 1300 animals are estimated to be left in the wild, of which only about 200 are breeding adults. The largest remaining populations are found in just four locations in India, along the Son, Katerniaghat, Girwa and Chambal rivers.
Irrawaddy dolphin:-
Irrawaddy dolphin is found in Chilika Lake and the Sundarbans, these dolphins have suffered a rapid decline in their population mainly due to poaching and accidental catches in gill nets. Conservation work carried out by the Chilika Development Authority (CDA) has resulted in an increasing trend in the population of the Irrawaddy dolphin, with the
numbers increasing from 70 in 2003 to 145 in 2012.
Freshwater turtles:-
Project Kachuga, an initiative undertaken by the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust in collaboration with Turtle Survival Alliance, has been launched for conservation of freshwater turtles in India. Five turtle priority areas have been identified for development and implementation of effective conservation plans under this programme.
Dugong:-
Listed as Vulnerable (IUCN 2013, Figure 1.17) and protected under Schedule I of the WPA, 1972, dugong occurs in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kachchh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The MoEF, under the species recovery component of the IDWH scheme, aims at increasing Dugong numbers and preventing degradation of the habitat of the species.
Myristica swamps:-
Myristica swamps are a type of freshwater swamp forest predominantly composed of species of Myristica, the most primitive of the flowering plants on earth. These are found in two localities in India, the Uttara Kannada district of the State of Karnataka and in the Southern parts of the State of Kerala.
Myristica swamps are ‘live museums’ of ancient tree species and the home of proto-angiosperms
Cycads:-
Cycads are the remnants of the most ancient seed plants. These plants date to the late Carboniferous period (300-325 million years ago). They are flagship species for conservation biology due to their unusual life histories, restricted distribution in special habitats and the globally threatened status of many species
Cycads are used extensively for medicinal and other subsistence purposes. Cycads in India are now receiving much-needed attention for conservation through both ex situ and in situ measures.
Rhododendron:-
It is a ‘keystone element’ in the Himalayan context.The Eastern Himalayan region is particularly rich, being represented by 75 species. The hills of North-eastern India account for about 10 species, of which six are endemic.
As many as 46 Rhododendron species have been classified as rare or threatened in the Eastern Himalaya of India.
The State Government of Sikkim has specially declared two PAs as Rhododendron Sanctuaries, Shingba and Barsey. Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary, Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary and Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary are the other PAs in Sikkim that are known for Rhododendron conservation.
Pitcher plant:-
It is rare, classified globally as endangered and included in Appendix I of CITES and the Negative List of Exports of the GoI.
The plant is endemic to the State of Meghalaya and is found at altitudes of approximately 1000-1500 m in the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo hills .
Citrus:-
India is regarded as the home and one of the centres of origin of Citrus due to the presence of a vast genetic diversity of important Citrus species (family Rutaceae).
Seven Indian Citrus species are categorized as endangered by the IUCN. An initiative was undertaken by NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources0in 1981 to protect Citrus germplasm in the wild by establishing the Citrus Gene Sanctuary, covering an area of approximately 10,266 ha, located in the buffer zone of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya, with support from the MoEF, under the Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme of the United Nations
Orchids:-
Orchids are a charismatic group that form 9% of India’s flora and are the largest family among higher plants in India.The Himalayan region is their main home, and others are
scattered in the Eastern and Western Ghats.
Orchid diversity in India is high, comprising terrestrial, epiphytic and saprophytic orchids. In general, terrestrial orchids are more common in western India, epiphytic orchids in North-eastern India and small-flowered orchids in the Western Ghats.
Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, at Arunachal Pradesh, with more than 600 species, is the orchid paradise of the country. Agastyamalai Hills, in southern Kerala, home to at least 150 endemics species.
Threat To biodiversity:-
National Biodiversity Targets:-
- By 2020, a significant proportion of the country’s population, especially the youth, is aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably.
- By 2020, values of biodiversity are integrated in national and state planning processes, development programmes and poverty alleviation strategies.
- Strategies for reducing rate of degradation, fragmentation and loss of all natural habitats are finalized and actions put in place by 2020 for environmental amelioration and human well-being
- By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and strategies to manage them developed so that populations of prioritized invasive alien species are managed.
- By 2020, measures are adopted for sustainable management of agriculture, forestry and fisheries.
- Ecologically representative areas under terrestrial and inland water, and also coastal and marine zones, especially those of particular importance for species, biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved effectively and equitably, based on protected area designation and management and other areabased conservation measures and are integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes, covering over 20% of the geographic area of the country by 2020 .
- By 2020, genetic diversity of cultivated plants, farm livestock, and their wild relatives, including other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species, is maintained, and strategies have been developed and implemented for minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity.
- By 2020, ecosystem services, especially those relating to water,human health, livelihoods and well-being, are enumerated and measures to safeguard them are identified, taking into account the needs of women and local communities, particularly the poor and vulnerable sections.
- By 2015, Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization as per the Nagoya Protocol are operational, consistent with national legislations.
- By 2020, an effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity action plan is made operational at different levels of governance
- By 2020, national initiatives using communities’ traditional knowledge relating to biodiversity are strengthened, with the view to protecting this knowledge in accordance with national legislations and international obligations
- By 2020, opportunities to increase the availability of financial, human and technical resources to facilitate effective implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the national targets are identified and the Strategy for Resource Mobilization is adopted.
Green India Mission (GIM):-
GIM is one of the eight missions under the NAPCC. The objectives of the Mission include increased forest/tree cover on 5 m ha of forest/non- forest lands and improved quality of forest cover on another 5 m ha of non-forest/ forest lands.
Invasive Species:-
India has an estimated 18,000 plants, 30 mammals, 4 birds, 300 freshwater fishes and 1100 arthropods that are invasive.Among the major threats faced by native plant and animal species (and their habitats), the one posed by the Invasive Alien Species, is considered second only to habitat loss. Invasive Alien Species are species whose introduction and/or spread outside their natural habitats threaten biological diversity. While only a small percentage of organisms transported to new environment become invasive, their negative impacts on food security, plant, animal and human health, and economic development can be extensive and substantial. Identification, monitoring and management of all Invasive Alien Species in India is a major challenge as in other parts of the world. Addressing the problem of Invasive Alien Species is urgent because the threat is increasing due to global trade, transport, and tourism with several social, economic and environmental impacts.
Many fresh water and marine algae including species of Kappaphycus (red algae), Microcystis ( freshwater cyanobacteria), Caulerpa (seaweeds ), Cladophora (green algae), etc. causing extensive damage to the ecosystems and affecting aquatic biodiversity adversely in India have been identified.
The invasive Carijoa riisei (snowflake coral or branched pipe coral) is found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kachchh.
A recent report on the occurrence of the Spider crab Acanthonyx euryseroche, a seaweed associate along the Central West Coast of India suggests that the epidemic outburst of such population might be dangerous to native marine biodiversity in India.
Of the eight worst invasive fish species in the world, five species are present in India. For example, Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) was introduced in India as a biological control.Brown trout (Salmo trutto) and Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were introduced in streams and rivers of Himalayas for recreational as well as consumption purposes. These three highly predatory fishes eat the eggs of economically desirable fish and prey on an endanger rare indigenous fish and invertebrate species. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambucus), were introduced in Indian aquaculture but later these species spread into large parts of India and are now competing with native species in for food and habitat. African cat fish Clarias gariepinus has been identified as a highly invasive fish in the Indian freshwater ecosystem and is posing a threat to native fish as well as other aquatic animals.
Mangrove For Future:-
Conservation of indigenous livestock:-
NAPCC:-
The eight national missions, which form the core of the NAPCC represent multi-pronged long-term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in the context of climate change. These are the (1) Solar Energy Mission, (2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency, (3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, (4) National Water Mission, (5) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, (6) Green India Mission (7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture and (8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change .
Protected Area Network of India:-
Background :-The Union Environment minister recently launched the Environment Information System (ENVIS) portal.
Protected Areas of India (as on 09 February, 2016)
| Type | No | Area (km2) | % of Geographical Area of India (%) |
| National Parks (NPs) | 103 | 40500.13 | 1.23 |
| Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLSs) | 535 | 118004.92 | 3.59 |
| Conservation Reserves (CRs) | 66 | 2344.53 | 0.07 |
| Community Reserves | 26 | 46.93 | 0.001 |
| Protected Areas (PAs) | 730 | 160896.51 | 4.88 |
Biosphere Reserves:-
Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science.The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated by UNESCO in 1971. The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems. The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 1979, since then the network of biosphere reserves has increased to 631 in 119 countries across the world.
| S. No. | Name | Date of Notification |
Area (in km2) | Location (State) |
| 1 | Nilgiri | 01.09.1986 | 5520 (Core 1240 & Buffer 4280) |
Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka). |
| 2 | Nanda Devi | 18.01.1988 | 5860.69 (Core 712.12, Buffer 5,148.570) & T. 546.34) |
Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar districts (Uttarakhand). |
| 3 | Nokrek | 01.09.1988 | 820 (Core 47.48 & Buffer 227.92, Transition Zone 544.60) |
Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya). |
| 4 | Great Nicobar | 06.01.1989 | 885 (Core 705 & Buffer 180) | Southern most islands of Andaman And Nicobar (A&N Islands). |
| 5 | Gulf of Mannar | 18.02.1989 | 10,500 km2 Total Gulf area (area of Islands 5.55 km2) |
Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu). |
| 6 | Manas | 14.03.1989 | 2837 (Core 391 & Buffer 2,446) |
Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang districts (Assam) |
| 7 | Sunderbans | 29.03.1989 | 9630 (Core 1700 & Buffer 7900) |
Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system (West Bengal). |
| 8 | Simlipal | 21.06.1994 | 4374 (Core 845, Buffer 2129 & Transition 1400 |
Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa). |
| 9 | Dibru-Saikhowa | 28.07.1997 | 765 (Core 340 & Buffer 425) |
Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts (Assam) |
| 10 | Dehang-Dibang | 02.09.1998 | 5111.50 (Core 4094.80 &Buffer 1016.70) |
Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh. |
| 11 | Pachmarhi | 03.03.1999 | 4926 | Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh. |
| 12 | Khangchendzonga | 07.02.2000 | 2619.92 (Core 1819.34 & Buffer 835.92) |
Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim. |
| 13 | Agasthyamalai | 12.11.2001 | 1828 | Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining areas in Kerala. |
| 14 | Achanakamar – Amarkantak | 30.3.2005 | 3835.51 (Core 551.55 & Buffer 3283.86) |
Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of M.P. and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattishgarh State. |
| 15 | Kachchh | 29.01.2008 | 12,454 km2 | Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat State |
| 16 | Cold Desert | 28.08.2009 | 7770 | Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu&Kibber Wildlife Sancturary in Himachal Pradesh |
| 17 | Seshachalam Hills | 20.09.2010 | 4755.997 | Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh |
| 18 | Panna | 25.08.2011 | 2998.98 | Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya Pradesh |
The Maps are old, and few of the proposed ones are already approved, so the maps should only be used to know the location of the reserves.
Details:-
The concept of Biosphere Reserves, especially its zonation, into Core Area(s) (dedicated to conservation), Buffer Area(s) (sustainable use) and Transition Area(s) (equitable sharing of benefits) were later broadly adopted under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD ) process which entered into force on 29th December, 1993. TheCBD has two principal objectives, namely ,‘Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity’ and ‘Fair and Equitable sharing of benefits arising from its utilization’.
The Articles 6-20 of CBD call for in-situ and ex-situ conservation, incentives for conservation and sustainable use, research and training, awareness and education,impact assessment, regulating access to genetic resources, access and transfer of technology and provisions of financial resources. While dealing with these issues, CBD emphasizes on nationally determined priorities, capacity and needs and with full and effective participation of local communities.
The Core Zone:
The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. It must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs. The core zones also contain places of exceptional scientific interest. A core zone secures legal protection and management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife are allowed. Strict nature reserves and wilderness portions of the area are designated as core areas of BR. The core zone is to be kept free from all human pressures external to the system.
The Buffer Zone:
In the Buffer Zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are managed in ways that protect the core zone. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism,fishing and grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to be permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.
The Transition Zone:
The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a Biosphere Reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the Biosphere Reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation, and other economic uses characteristic of the region. In Buffer Zone and the Transition Zones, manipulative macro-management practices are used. Experimental research areas are used for understanding the patterns and processes in the ecosystem. Modified or degraded landscapes are included as rehabilitation areas to restore the ecology in a way that it returns to sustainable productivity.
The characteristic features of Biosphere Reserves are:-
(1) Each Biosphere Reserves are protected areas of land and/or coastal environments wherein people are an integral component of the system. Together, they constitute a world wide network linked by International understanding for exchange of scientific information.
(2) The network of BRs include significant examples of biomes throughout the world.
(3) Each BR includes one or more of the following categories:-
(i) BRs are representative examples of natural biomes.
(ii) BRs conserve unique communities of biodiversity or areas with unusual natural features of exceptional interest . It is recognized that these representative areas may also contain unique features of landscapes, ecosystems and genetic variations e.g. one population of a globally rare species; their representativeness and uniqueness may both be characteristics of an area.
(iii) BRs have examples of harmonious landscapes resulting from traditional patterns of land-use.
(iv) BRs have examples of modified or degraded ecosystems capable of being restored to more natural conditions.
(v) BRs generally have a non-manipulative core area, in combination with areas in which baseline measurements, experimental and manipulative research, education and training is carried out. Where these areas are not contiguous, they can be associated in a cluster.
Functions of Biosphere Reserves:-
Conservation
• To ensure the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variations.
• To encourage the traditional resource use systems;
• To understand the patterns and processes of functioning of ecosystems;
• To monitor the natural and human-caused changes on spatial and temporal scales;
Development
• To promote, at the local level, economic development which is culturally, socially and ecologically sustainable.
• To develop the strategies leading to improvement and management of natural resources;
Logistics support
• To provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and development
• Sharing of knowledge generated by research through site specific training and education
• Development of community spirit in the management of natural resources.
Criteria:-
Primary criteria
• A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature conservation and should include additional land and water suitable for research and demonstration of sustainable methods of research and management.
• The core area should be typical of a biogeographical unit and large enough to sustain viable populations representing all tropic levels in the ecosystem.
Secondary criteria
• Areas having rare and endangered species
• Areas having diversity of soil and micro-climatic conditions and indigenous varieties of biota.
• Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of environment.
How Biosphere Reserves are different from protected areas such as National Parks (NP) and Wildlife Sanctuaries(WS)?
It may be noted that the BR is not intended to replace existing protected areas but it widens the scope of conventional approach of protection and further strengthens the Protected Area Network. Existing legally protected areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuary, Tiger Reserve and reserve/protected forests) may become part of the BR without any change in their legal status. On the other hand, inclusion of such areas in a BR will enhance their national value. It, however, does not mean that Biosphere Reserves are to be established only around the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. However, the Biosphere Reserves differ from protected areas due to their emphasis on :
(i) Conservation of overall biodiversity and landscape, rather than some specific flagship species, to allow natural and evolutionary processes to continue without any hindrance.
(ii) Different components of BRs like landscapes, habitats, and species and land races.
(iii) Developmental activities, and resolution/mitigation of conflicts between development and conservation,
(iv) Increase in broad-basing of stakeholders, especially local people’s participation and their Training, compared to the features of scheme on Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks.
(v) Sustainable environment friendly development, and sustained coordination amongst different development organizations and agencies.
(vi) Research and Monitoring to understand the structure and functioning of ecological system and their mode of reaction when exposed to human
RAMSAR Wetland Sites:-
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands, recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their economic, cultural, scientific, and recreational value
| Sl. No. | Name of Site | State Location | Date of Declaration | Area (in sq.km.) |
| 1 | Asthamudi Wetland | Kerala | 19.8.2002 | 1860 |
| 2 | Bhitarkanika Mangroves | Orissa | 19.8.2002 | 525 |
| 3 | Bhoj Wetlands | Madhya Pradesh | 19.8.2002 | 31 |
| 4 | Chandertal Wetland | Himachal Pradesh | 8.11.2005 | 38.56 |
| 5 | Chilka Lake | Orissa | 1.10.1981 | 1140 |
| 6 | Deepor Beel | Assam | 19.8.2002 | 4.14 |
| 7 | East Calcutta Wetlands | West Bengal | 19.8.2002 | 378 |
| 8 | Harike Lake | Punjab | 23.3.1990 | 86 |
| 9 | Hokera Wetland | Jammu and Kashmir | 8.11.2005 | 13.75 |
| 10 | Kanjli Lake | Punjab | 22.1.2002 | 14.84 |
| 11 | Keoladeo Ghana NP | Rajasthan | 1.10.1981 | 28.73 |
| 12 | Kolleru Lake | Andhra Pradesh | 19.8.2002 | 673 |
| 13 | Loktak Lake | Manipur | 23.3.1990 | 945 |
| 14 | Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary | Gujarat | 24/09/12 | 120 |
| 15 | Point Calimere | Tamil Nadu | 19.8.2002 | 17.26 |
| 16 | Pong Dam Lake | Himachal Pradesh | 19.8.2002 | 307.29 |
| 17 | Renuka Wetland | Himachal Pradesh | 8.11.2005 | Not Available |
| 18 | Ropar Lake | Punjab | 22.1.2002 | 41.36 |
| 19 | Rudrasagar Lake | Tripura | 8.11.2005 | 2.40 |
| 20 | Sambhar Lake | Rajasthan | 23.3.1990 | 736 |
| 21 | Sasthamkotta Lake | Kerala | 19.8.2002 | 11.3 |
| 22 | Surinsar-Mansar Lakes | Jammu and Kashmir | 8.11.2005 | 3.50 |
| 23 | Tsomoriri Lake | Jammu and Kashmir | 19.8.2002 | 120 |
| 24 | Vembanad Kol Wetland | Kerala | 19.8.2002 | 4583 |
| 25 | Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch) |
Uttar Pradesh | 8.11.2005 | 265.90 |
| 26 | Wular Lake | Jammu & Kashmir | 23.3.1990 | 173 |
Natural World Heritage Sites:-
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization as of special cultural or physical significance.
| Sl. No. |
Name of WH Site | State Location |
Year of Notification |
Area (sq.km) |
| 1 | Kaziranga National Park | Assam | 1985 | 429.96 |
| 2 | Keoladeo Ghana National Park | Rajasthan | 1985 | 28.73 |
| 3 | Manas Wildlife Sanctuary | Assam | 1985 | 391.00 |
| 4 | Nanda Devi National Park and Valley of Flowers |
Uttarakhand | 1982 2005 |
630.00 87.50 |
| 5 | Sunderbans National Park | West Bengal | 1984 | 1,330.10 |
| 6 | Western Ghats | Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala |
2012 | 7,953.15 |
| 7 | Great Himalayan National Park | Himachal Pradesh | 2014 | 905.4 |
Tiger Reserves:-
Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India in the year 1973 to save the endangered species of tiger in the country. Starting from nine (9) reserves in 1973-74 the number is grown up to forty eight (48). A total area of 69793.24 km2 is covered by these project tiger areas.
Tiger Reserves of India (as on February, 2016)
| Sl. No. | Name of Tiger Reserve | State | Area of the core / critical tiger habitat (In Sq. Kms.) | Area of the buffer / peripheral (In Sq. Kms.) | Total area(In Sq.Kms.) | |
| 1 | Nagarjunsagar Srisailam (part)* | Andhra Pradesh | 2595.72* | 700.59* | 3296.31* | |
| 2 | Namdapha | Arunachal Pradesh | 1807.82 | 245 | 2052.82 | |
| 3 | Pakke | Arunachal Pradesh | 683.45 | 515 | 1198.45 | |
| 4 | Manas | Assam | 840.04 | 2310.88 | 3150.92 | |
| 5 | Nameri | Assam | 200 | 144 | 344 | |
| 6 | Kaziranga | Assam | 625.58 | 548 | 1173.58 | |
| 7 | Valmiki | Bihar | 598.45 | 300.93 | 899.38 | |
| 8 | Udanti-Sitanadi | Chattisgarh | 851.09 | 991.45 | 1842.54 | |
| 9 | Achanakmar | Chattisgarh | 626.195 | 287.822 | 914.017 | |
| 10 | Indravati | Chhattisgarh | 1258.37 | 1540.7 | 2799.07 | |
| 11 | Palamau | Jharkhand | 414.08 | 715.85 | 1129.93 | |
| 12 | Bandipur | Karnataka | 872.24 | 584.06 | 1456.3 | |
| 13 | Bhadra | Karnataka | 492.46 | 571.83 | 1064.29 | |
| 14 | Dandeli-Anshi | Karnataka | 814.884 | 282.63 | 1097.514 | |
| 15 | Nagarahole | Karnataka | 643.35 | 562.41 | 1205.76 | |
| 16 | Biligiri Ranganatha Temple | Karnataka | 359.1 | 215.72 | 574.82 | |
| 17 | Periyar | Kerala | 881 | 44 | 925 | |
| 18 | Parambikulam | Kerala | 390.89 | 252.772 | 643.662 | |
| 19 | Kanha | Madhya Pradesh | 917.43 | 1134.361 | 2051.791 | |
| 20 | Pench | Madhya Pradesh | 411.33 | 768.30225 | 1179.63225 | |
| 21 | Bandhavgarh | Madhya Pradesh | 716.903 | 820.03509 | 1598.1 | |
| 22 | Panna | Madhya Pradesh | 576.13 | 1021.97** | 1578.55 | |
| 23 | Satpura | Madhya Pradesh | 1339.264 | 794.04397 | 2133.30797 | |
| 24 | Sanjay-Dubri | Madhya Pradesh | 812.571 | 861.931 | 1674.502 | |
| 25 | Melghat | Maharashtra | 1500.49 | 1268.03 | 2768.52 | |
| 26 | Tadoba-Andhari | Maharashtra | 625.82 | 1101.7711 | 1727.5911 | |
| 27 | Pench | Maharashtra | 257.26 | 483.96 | 741.22 | |
| 28 | Sahyadri | Maharashtra | 600.12 | 565.45 | 1165.57 | |
| 29 | Nawegaon-Nagzira | Maharashtra | 653.674 | – | 653.674 | |
| 30 | Bor | Maharashtra | 138.12 | – | 138.12 | |
| 31 | Dampa | Mizoram | 500 | 488 | 988 | |
| 32 | Similipal | Odisha | 1194.75 | 1555.25 | 2750 | |
| 33 | Satkosia | Odisha | 523.61 | 440.26 | 963.87 | |
| 34 | Ranthambore | Rajasthan | 1113.364 | 297.9265 | 1411.291 | |
| 35 | Sariska | Rajasthan | 881.1124 | 332.23 | 1213.342 | |
| 36 | Mukandra Hills | Rajasthan | 417.17 | 342.82 | 759.99 | |
| 37 | Kalakad-Mundanthurai | Tamil Nadu | 895 | 706.542 | 1601.542 | |
| 38 | Mudumalai | Tamil Nadu | 321 | 367.59 | 688.59 | |
| 39 | Sathyamangalam | Tamil Nadu | 793.49 | 614.91 | 1408.4 | |
| 40 | Anamalai | Tamil Nadu | 958.59 | 521.28 | 1479.87 | |
| 41 | Kawal | Telangana | 893.23 | 1125.89 | 2019.12 | |
| 42 | Nagarjunasagar Srisailam (part) * | Telangana | 2166.37* | 445.02* | 2611.39* | |
| 43 | Dudhwa | Uttar Pradesh | 1093.79 | 1107.9848 | 2201.7748 | |
| 44 | Pilibhit | Uttar Pradesh | 602.798 | 127.4518 | 730.2498 | |
| 45 | Amangarh (buffer of Corbett TR) | Uttar Pradesh | – | 80.6 | 80.6 | |
| Corbett | Uttarakhand | 821.99 | 466.32 | 1288.31 | ||
| 46 | Rajaji TR | Uttarakhand | 255.63 | 819.54 | 1075.17 | |
| 47 | Sunderbans | West Bengal | 1699.62 | 885.27 | 2584.89 | |
| 48 | Buxa | West Bengal | 390.5813 | 367.3225 | 757.9038 | |
| TOTAL | 39025.93 | 30725.71 | 69793.24 |
Recent Posts
- India’s telecom market has seen monopoly as well as hyper-competition.
- Twenty-five years ago, the government alone could provide services.
- Ten years later, there were nearly a dozen competing operators.
- Most service areas now have four players.
- The erstwhile monopolies, BSNL and MTNL, are now bit players and often ignored.
- India is ranked second globally—after China—in the number of people connected to the internet. However, it is also first in the number of people unconnected.
- Over 50% of Indians are not connected to the internet, despite giant strides in network reach and capacity.
- India’s per capita or device data usage is low. It has an impressive 4G mobile network. However, its fixed network—wireline or optical fibre—is sparse and often poor.
- 5G deployment has yet to start and will be expensive.
Context
Sunil Mittal, the chairman of Bharti Airtel, said recently that it would be “tragic” if India’s telecom-access market was to be reduced to only two competing operators. He was probably referring to the possible exit of the financially-stressed Vodafone Idea and the increasing irrelevance of government-owned operators, BSNL and MTNL. This would essentially leave the market to Reliance Jio and Airtel. A looming duopoly, or the exit of a global telecommunications major, are both worrying. They deserve a careful and creative response.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]Thus Far
The reduced competition is worrying. Competition has delivered relatively low prices, advanced technologies, and an acceptable quality of services. These gains are now at risk. There is a long way to go in expanding access as well as network capacity.
The Indian Telecom Irony
Vodafone Tragedy
Filling the gaps in infrastructure and access will require large investments and competition. The exit of Vodafone Idea will hurt both objectives. The company faces an existential crisis since it was hit hardest by the Supreme Court judgment on the AGR issue in 2019, with an estimated liability of Rs 58,000 crore.
The closure of Vodafone Idea is an arguably greater concern than the fading role of BSNL and MTNL. The government companies are yet to deploy 4G and have become progressively less competitive. Vodafone Idea, on the other hand, still accounts for about a quarter of subscriptions and revenues and can boast of a quality network.
It has been adjudged the fastest, for three consecutive quarters, by Ookla, a web-service that monitors internet metrics. India can ill-afford to waste such network capacity. The company’s liabilities will deter any potential buyer.
Vodafone+MTNL+BSNL ?
A possible way out could be to combine the resources of the MTNL and BSNL and Vodafone Idea through a strategic partnership. Creative government action can save Vodafone Idea as well as improve the competitiveness of BSNL and MTNL.
It could help secure government dues, investment, and jobs. It is worth recalling here that, about 30 years ago, the Australian government’s conditions for the entry of its first private operator, Optus, required the latter to take over the loss-making government satellite company, Aussat. Similar out-of-the-box thinking may well be key to escape the looming collateral damage.
It is not trivial to expand competition in India’s telecom market. Especially since there are no major regulatory barriers to entry anymore. Any new private player will be driven largely by commercial considerations. Global experience suggests that well-entrenched incumbents have massive advantages. New players are daunted by the large investments—and much patience!—needed to set up networks, lure existing customers and sign new ones.
However, regulators and policymakers have other options to expand choice for telecom consumers. Their counterparts in mature regulatory regimes—e.g., in the European Union—have helped develop extensive markets for resale. Recognising the limited influence of smaller players, regulators mandate that the incumbent offer wholesale prices to resellers who then expand choice for end-users.
This has been virtually impossible in India. There is a near absence of noteworthy virtual network operators (VNOs) and other resellers. A key barrier to resale is India’s licence fee regime which requires licence-holders to share a proportion of their revenues with the government. Thus, resale could hurt exchequer revenues unless resellers are subject to identical levies. Understandably, the levies—and consequently additional reporting and compliance—is a disincentive for smaller players. The disincentive flows from levies based on revenues which comes with considerable costs of compliance. It would almost vanish if the levies were replaced by say, a flat fee computed objectively.
The ball is in the court of the regulator and the government. They have options. But will they take decisive action to exercise them? It will be ‘tragic’ if they can’t.
INTRODUCTION
Since most of the early scholars, researchers and historians were men, many aspects of society did not find a place in history books. For example, child-birth, menstruation, women’s work, transgenders, households etc. did not find much mention.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]Rather than building a holistic picture of the past, some select aspects such as polity and the different roles of men became the central focus of history writing. Women were confined to one corner of the chapter where a paragraph or two was devoted to the ‘status and position of women’.
Even the details of these paragraphs were hardly different from each other. This made it look like as if history (and thereby society, polity, economy and all culture) belonged to men while women were only a small static unit to be mentioned separately. Of course, there were some exceptions, but these were however rare. This practice is being corrected now and the roles and presence of women are being read into all parts of historical questions.
SOURCES FOR UNDERSTANDING GENDER HISTORY
Sources are the bases of history writing. From simple pre-historic tools to abstruse texts, everything can be utilized to understand life and roles of women in history. The presence as well as the absence of women from sources needs to be duly noticed, deliberated and argued upon and only then to be theorised upon.
Certain objects being directly related to the lives of women or depicting the ideas of the female principle are of central importance. These include but are not limited to female figurines, art objects, texts attributed to or authored or compiled by women, monuments created by or for women, various objects relating to their lifestyle, objects associated with women on account of their cultural roles and so on.
It has been rightly pointed out by Uma Chakravarti that much of the gender history written in early phase was a ‘partial view from above’. This referred to the utilization of select textual sources and focused only on relational identity of women. There were, however, a few exceptions.
GENDER HISTORIOGRAPHY
Amongst the many narratives propagated to denigrate Indian civilization and culture by the British colonial rulers, the condition of Indian women became a point of central reference. Various social evils that made the life of women miserable were pointed out and efforts were also made to introduce ‘reforms.’ Sati, child-marriages, imposed widowhood, polygamy, dowry, educational and economic inequality, purdah (ghoonghat) and many other practices prevailed during the colonial period that made the life of women difficult and pitiable.
Some practices affected women of higher social and economic households while others led to misery for poorer women. Many social reform movements were started in the 19th century to address these issues and contributions were made by Indian reformers as well as British officials and other Europeans.
Women in India came to be treated as a homogeneous category and over generalisation became the norm. While many communities in India practised widow remarriage and did not practise (much less forced) sati and while some practised divorces or separation, the image of the Indian woman who had been subjugated as woman, wife and widow became a dominant theme in history writing.
Secondly, a western vision was placed over the non-western societies and hence interpretations were far removed from the context. For example, notion of stridhan was equated with dowry and little regard was paid to the provisions regarding its use and ownership by women.
The huge social stigma that came along with the selling of jewellery of the household (one of the main components of stridhan) was paid no attention to. Similarly, penal provisions listed by ancient texts for misappropriation of women’s property were not even looked into.
During the Paleolithic age, hunting and gathering was norm. However much importance was given to Hunting than gathering in all literature of history. Studies, however, show that hunted prey formed only 35% of the diet while gathering fruits and other edible material supplied the major portion. Gathering of food resources was ordinarily done by women. Since gathering was an important activity, more than hunting for game, it could point to significant role playing by women.
The gendered understanding of Harappan civilization is being built upon and various archaeological remains have been studied in this respect. The female figurines, idols of pregnant women, the statue of the ‘dancing girl’, various pieces of jewellery and personal belongings that have been discovered at various sites and offer useful insights on the public and private lives of women and men.
The statue of a girl obtained from Mohanjodaro has been called a ‘dancing girl’ on grounds of familiarity with the institution of devadasis in the later times. Such backward looking explanations are problematic.
There is a wide variety of terracotta female figurines that have been found at different sites right from the pre-Harappan times. Women figures are found suckling a baby, holding utensils, kneading dough, nursing infants, carrying objects like drums, seated figures for board games, with steatopygia (fat deposition on the hips and elsewhere), with floral head-dresses and in many other forms.
Even figurines of pregnant women are quite common. However, most of these have been uncritically associated with fertility, religiosity and reproductive ideas, and have been passed off as representations of the Mother Goddesses. While some of them were votive objects, others are held to be toys or other utilities. The focus on female form has been so stereotypical that women have been seen as associated only with home, hearth, fertility, sexuality and divinity. So much so that sometimes even male figurines in assumed womanly roles were classified as female figurines.
POSITION OF WOMEN IN EARLY INDIA
The first literary tradition in the Indian subcontinent (and the oldest in the world) is that of the Vedic corpus. From the four Samhitas to the Upanishads, we find many interesting references to women in various roles. Some of these women have left their mark on the cultural heritage to this day and are remembered in various ritual and social contexts. Their names, stories, some highly revered hymns, and other interesting facets are mentioned in the Vedic corpus.
The Vedic literature has been classified as Early Vedic and Later Vedic. The Rigvedic society and polity seems to be teeming with life and agro-pastoral economy was enmeshed in close kinship ties. Women as well as men participated in society, economy and polity. Some of the most revered hymns including the gayatri mantra are ascribed to women.
Various natural phenomena are depicted as Goddesses and they are offered prayers. While quantitative analysis highlights the predominance of Indra, Agni, Varuna and other male gods, the power and stature of the goddesses is equally well established.
Women participated in all three Vedic socio-political assemblies viz. Sabha, Samiti and Vidhata. They had access to education and were even engaged in knowledge creation. They could choose to be brahmavadinis with or without matrimony.
Hence, there is no reason to believe that they were only confined to home and hearth. T. S. Rukmani attempts to understand if women had agency in early India. Her work has highlighted many interesting details. The author acknowledges the fact that though the patriarchal set up put women at a loss, there were instances where women found space to exercise their agency.
She points out that though the texts like the Kalpasutras (Srautasutras, Dharmasutras and Grhasutras) revolved around the ideology of Dharma and there was not much space to express alternative ideas, still these works also find some leeway to express ideas reflecting changed conditions.
For example, there is a statement in the Apastamba Dharmasutra that one should follow what women say in the funeral samskaras. Stephanie Jamison believes that in hospitality and exchange relations, women played an important role. She says that the approval of the wife was important in the successful completion of the soma sacrifice. In another study it has been shown that women enjoyed agency in deciding what was given in a sacrifice, bhiksha to a sanyasin. The men had no authority in telling her what to do in these circumstances.
Vedic society was the one which valued marriage immensely. In such contexts, Gender Perspectives if a woman chose not to marry, then it would point to her exercising choice in her decision to go against the grain and remain unmarried.
Mention may be made of Gargi. She was a composer of hymns and has been called a brahmavadini. This term applies to a woman who was a composer of hymns and chose to remain unmarried, devoting herself to the pursuit of learning.
Similarly, in the case of Maitreyi, she consciously opts to be educated in the Upanishadic lore and Yajnavalkya does not dissuade her from exercising her choice.
The statement in the Rigveda that learned daughters should marry learned bridegrooms indicates that women had a say in marriage. Though male offspring is desired, there is a mantra in the Rigveda, recitation of which ensures the birth of a learned daughter.
Altekar refers to the yajnas like seethayagna, rudrayajna etc. that were to be performed exclusively by women. Some of the women were known for their exceptional calibre, for example, from the Rigveda Samhita we find mention of women like Apala, Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Shachi, Vishwavara Atri, Sulabha and others.
Women have not only been praised as independent individuals but also with reference to their contributions towards their natal or marital families.
The Later Vedic literature shows the progression towards a State society with a change in the organization of the society and polity. The chief comes to be referred to as bhupati instead of gopati. However, within the twelve important positions (ratnis) mentioned, the chief queen retains a special position under the title mahisi.
The importance of the chief queen continued as gleaned from several references to them in the Epics, Arthashastra and even in coins and epigraphs from early historical times.
The other Samhitas also refer to women sages such as Rishikas. The wife is referred to as sahadharmini. Brahmanas or the texts dealing with the performance of the yajna (Vedic ritual), requires a man to be accompanied by his wife to be able to carry out rituals.
For example, Aitareya Brahmana looks upon the wife as essential to spiritual wholesomeness of the husband. However, there is a mention of some problematic institutions as well.
Uma Chakravarti has pointed towards the condition of Vedic Dasis (female servant/slave) who are referred to in numerous instances. They were the objects of dana (donation/gift) and dakshina (fee).
It is generally believed that from the post Vedic period the condition of the women steadily deteriorated. However, Panini’s Ashtadhyayi and subsequent grammatical literature speak highly of women acharyas and Upadhyayas.
Thus, the memory and practice of a brahmavadini continued even after the Vedic period. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and even the Puranas keep the memory of brhamavadini alive.
Mention may be made of Anasuya, Kunti, Damyanti, Draupadi, Gandhari, Rukmini who continued to fire the imagination of the poets. Texts show that the daughter of Kuni-garga refused marriage because she did not find anyone worthy of her.
The Epics also mention women whose opinions were sought in major events. For example, after the thirteen years of exile, while debating upon the future course of action regarding the restoration of their share, the Pandavas along with Krshna asks Draupadi for her views. Similarly, when Krishna goes to the Kaurava’s court to plead the case of Pandavas, Gandhari is called upon to persuade her sons to listen to reason.
Since a woman taking sanyasa was an act of transgression, one can explore women’s agency through such instances. In the Ramayana, Sabari, who was the disciple of Sage Matanga, and whose hermitage was on the banks of river Pampa was one such sanyasin.
Such women find mention in Smriti literature and Arthashashtra. Kautilya’s prohibition against initiating women into Sanyasa can make sense only if women were being initiated into sanyasa. He advises the king to employ female parivrajakas as spies.
Megasthenes mentions women who accompanied their husbands to the forest, probably referring to the Vanaprastha stage. Another category of literature called Shastras that comprises of sutras (aphorisms) and the smriti texts (‘that which is remembered’) becomes important in the postVedic period.
These textual traditions cover many subjects relating to the four kinds of pursuits of life referred to as purusharthas (namely dharma, karma, kama and moksha). In all these texts we find very liberal values and freedom for both women and men.
The setting up of a household is seen as an ideal for men as well as women (though asceticism for learning is equally praised for both). For example, Apastambha Sutra opines that rituals carried out by an unmarried man do not please the devatas (divinities). Similarly, Manusmriti provides that ‘for three years shall a girl wait after the onset of her puberty; after that time, she may find for herself a husband of equal status. If a woman who has not been given in marriage finds a husband on her own, she does not incur any sin, and neither does the man she finds’
Thus, we see that women enjoyed choice in matters of matrimony. It is interesting to note that unmarried daughters were to be provided for by the father. In fact, daughter is stated to be the object of utmost affection. Should a girl lose her parents, her economic interests were well looked after. It was provided that from their shares, ‘the brothers shall give individually to the unmarried girls, one-quarter from the share of each. Those unwilling to give will become outcastes’
With regards to defining contemporary attitude towards women, Apastambha Sutra prescribed that ‘All must make a way for a woman when she is treading a path.’ Later Dharmashastra also makes similar statements.
Yagnavalkyasmriti mentions that ‘women are the embodiment of all divine virtues on earth.’ However, there are several provisions that look problematic.
On one hand, we have reverence assigned to the feminine (divine and worldly) and important roles being played by them, on the other hand we have questionable provisions and descriptions like right to chastise them through beating or discarding.
The post-Vedic phase from 6th century BCE onwards is also rich in literary traditions with ample depictions of women. Interestingly, we have an entire body of literature that is ascribed totally to women who became Buddhist nuns. These are referred to as Therigathas i.e. the Songs of the Elder Bhikkhunis (Buddhist Women who joined the Sangha).
The Arthashastra Gender Perspectives gives us information on women who were engaged in economic activities of various kinds. They formed a part of both the skilled and the unskilled workforce. They were into professional as well as non-professional employment.
Some of their vocations were related to their gender, while the others were not. There were female state employees as well as independent working women. Similarly, some of them were engaged in activities which though not dependent on their biological constitution are nonetheless categorized as women’s domain, e.g. domestic services etc. Some of them were actual state employees, while some others were in contractual relations with the State. For example, we have female bodyguards and spies in the State employment.
Jaiswal suggests that these women perhaps came from Bhila or Kirata tribe. Female spies were not only to gather information and relay it to proper source, but also to carry out assassinations. However, a closer look at the text shows that there were different classes of female spies engaged for different purposes. Amongst others ‘women skilled in arts were to be employed as spies living inside their houses’. Others were required to work as assassins. Some were to the play the roles of young and beautiful widows to tempt the lust of greedy enemy.
We also have various Buddhist and Jaina traditions giving us some glimpses of the ideas and institutions of the times. Apart from the orthodox (Vedic and Brahmanic) and heterodox normative tradition we have many popular texts like the Epics in Sanskrit and Jatakas in Pali.
Even Prakrit language has many interesting narratives and poetic texts. The Therigatha by the Buddhist nuns are an interesting literary source that provides us with a glimpse of various women who attained arhantship or similar other stages of Realisation.
The deliberation on the age and deterioration of the body by Ambapali, the non-importance of sensual or bodily pleasures by Nanda, Vimla and Shubha etc points towards the intellectual and spiritual engagements and attainments of women.
It is interesting to note that an absolutely contrary picture is presented by the Jatakas wherein more often than not, women are depicted as evil. It is important to note that women were given an evil aura mostly in their roles as wives or beloveds.
Both the texts and the archaeological remains have been studied by various scholars and opposing interpretations are not rare. For example, on one side Sita (from Ramayana) and Draupadi (from Mahabharata) have been seen as victims of the patriarchal order; on the other hand, they are also represented as selfwilled women.
Draupadi after the game of dice presents herself as a forceful and articulate woman. It’s her wit that saves her husbands from becoming slaves of the Kauravas. Her incensed outrage at the attack on her modesty, her bitter lamentations to Krishna, her furious tirade against Yudhishthira for his seeming inability to defend her honour and many more such instances show her to be an aggressive woman. This persona is juxtaposed to her representations as an ideal wife elsewhere. However, Draupadi is never idealised as a perfect wife who endures the most severe trials without complaint. This honour is reserved for Sita in the Ramayana. She is also presented as a victim like Draupadi and voices her concern at her fate openly. However, her aggression is directed inwards as indicated by her action against the self which culminate in her union with the mother Earth.
Are the limited number of hymns ascribed to the Vedic women a signifier of their general status? Are the goddesses merely representational with no connection to the ideas and behaviour towards women? Did only princesses choose their spouses? Are the warrior women an exception? Such searching questions need to be addressed with due diligence.
While women studies are a good development there is a need to expand the horizons to include other varieties of human existence. We have narratives of fluid sexuality in various texts. The one year of Arjuna’s life spent as Brihallana and rebirth of Amba as Shikhandi are some interesting instances. The artefacts found at the site of Sheri Khan Tarakai include visibly hermaphroditic figurines. There is a need to understand the notions of the feminine, masculine, neuter, and other forms of gender and sexual identities. These will have ramifications for understanding the ideas of conjugality, family, community, society and even polity and spirituality.
CONCLUSION
Human civilisations were built by men as well as women, however, history writing has a huge male-bias. Women were confined to questions of status and position that were largely evaluated in terms of their roles in the domestic sphere.
Their treatment as wives and widows became a central focus of most research alongside their place in ritual or religious context. This made them peripheral to mainstream history. This was questioned by various scholars from time to time and led to the development of gendered understanding of history. Focusing attention on women’s history helps to rectify the method which sees women as a monolithic homogeneous category. Writing gender history has helped in building an image of the past that is wholesome and nuanced.