Intense solar radiation, lashing winds, and little moisture i.e. less than 10 inches (25 cm) of rainfall create some of the harshest living condition in the biosphere called hot desert. In hot desert ecosystem generally with cloudless skies, the sun quickly heats the desert by day, producing the highest air temperatures (recorded as 57.8º C in Death Valley, California) in the biosphere.
In contrast, the nights are very cold, as the temperature goes down tremendously due to loss of heat into the atmosphere through radiation. There is little water and temperatures vary widely, one may bake during the day and freeze at night.
High temperatures during daytime and persistent winds accelerate water evaporation and transpiration of water vapour from plants. High evapotranspiration and low rainfall is the chief characteristic of desert ecosystem, thus producing sparse perennial vegetation of widely spaced shrubs. The winters are quite cold, temperatures sometimes below freezing point, while heat during summer is intense and scorching. Scarcity of rain fall in deserts ecosystem can be due to high subtropical pressure (Sahara and Australian deserts), geographical position in the rain shadows (western North American deserts) and due to high altitude (Tibetan, Bolivian or Gobi deserts).
Deserts ecosystem cover about 14 percent of the earth’s land and occur mainly near 30º north and south latitude where global air currents create belts of descending dry air. Some desert ecosystem are also produced in the rain shadows of high mountain ranges, leeward slopes that face away from incoming storms and thereby receive little rainfall. Most deserts ecosystem receives some rain during the year and has at least a sparse cover of vegetation.
Annual net primary productivity of true deserts is less than 2000 kg per hectare. The dominant soils of the arid zone are light-textured and devoid of any significant structural development. These are prone to severe wind erosion. Desert ecosystems have very low water retention capacity – with high infiltration rate and low hydraulic conductivity. Water is hardly retained in deserts soil as it is not soaked into the earth, and rushes off in torrents. The moisture in the arid zones is insufficient to support living beings.
But despite such harsh living conditions, desert ecosystem exhibits a spectacular biological diversity. A large number of plant and animal species thrive in the deserts due to their morphological, anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations.
Plant Adaptations
Plants have evolved many adaptions for surviving the rigors of the desert. There are three life-forms of plants that are adapted to desert ecosystem: a) ephemeral annuals, b) succulents, and c) desert shrubs.
Ephemeral annuals are also called as ‘drought evaders’ or ‘drought escapers’. They germinate, grow, flower, and release seeds within the brief period (6-8 weeks) when water is available and temperatures are warm. The seeds remain dormant, resisting drought and heat, until the following spring. Seeds wait out adverse environmental conditions, sometimes for decades, and will germinate and grow only when specific requirements are met. With their small size and large shoots in relation to roots, they are well adapted to dry habitats. They escape dryness in both external and internal environments. Desert sunflower and desert marigold complete their life cycles during brief rainy seasons.
The succulent plants suffer from dryness in only external environment. Their succulent, fleshy stems, leaves and roots serve as water storage organs (water storage region is present in these organs) which accumulate large amount of water during brief rainy seasons. Opuntia, Aloe, Euphorbia, Yucca and Agave have mastered the art of enduring in the desert ecosystem by economizing in their expenditures of moisture.
They rely on their waxy coatings, spongy stem and/or leaf tissues, root structures and their night time stomata openings to carefully regulate their water use. At night the temperatures are lower and humidity higher than during the day, so less water is lost through transpiration. Such plants are sometimes called “drought endures”. In Opuntia spp. (Cactus), the stem modified into a thick, fleshy, green, life-like structure called phylloclade which manufacture food by photosynthesis and conserve water. Their leaves modified into spines which retard transpiration, promote dew formation at their tips, protect from insolation and from thirsty animals. The bulk of the tissue consists of large, round, pitted, parenchymatous water-storing cells. The cell sap is mucilaginous which helps in checking evaporation of water. The extensive shallow root systems are usually radial, allowing for the quick acquisition of large quantities of water during the rainy period.
The leaves are fleshy in Aloe spp. with marginal spines and a large water-storing tissue. The succulent Euphorbia spp. has succulent stem which store large quantities of water during rainy season. It contains toxic milky latex that irritates skin and eyes. The stipules become modified into spines. The toxic substances and spines prevent them from predator animals. The Century plant (Agave spp.) has saw-toothed leaves with waxy coatings that render them nearly waterproof and so prevents loss of water.
The leaves of these plants channel rain water to the plant’s base. It also contains toxic chemicals like oxalate crystals and irritating substances that can irritate the skin and mucous membranes and can cause digestive problems in their predator animals. The Joshua tree (Yucca spp.) is a very tough plant. The leaves are stiff and very pointed. The roots become fleshy to store water in Asparagus spp.
The shrub in desert ecosystem or non-succulent perennials suffers from dryness both in their internal as well as external environments. Their morphological and physiological features include rapid elongation and extensive root system, high osmotic pressure and endurance of desiccation, ability to reduce transpiration and reduction in size of leaf blade. Root system is very extensive i.e. more than 30 m long (Alfalfa spp.) to siphon deep groundwater supplies.
There is waxy coating and sunken type of stomata on leaves, which reduces loss of water during transpiration. Desert grasses have rolled and folded leaves so that the sunken stomata become hidden to minimize the rates of transpiration. In desert ecosystem, individual plants are scattered thinly with large bare areas in between. These spacing reduces competition for a scarce resource; otherwise intense competition for water might result in the death or stunting of all of the plants.
The grasses (bunchgrass) in desert ecosystem also grow in isolated tufts. During extremely hot and dry period, the parts of the plants that are above the land may wither and die, but the root systems remain alive. Desert mariposa and desert lily have bulbs that may remain dormant for several years until a deep soaking rain awakens them. The extensive bare ground in desert ecosystem is not necessarily free of plants. Mosses, algae, and lichens may be present which form a stabilizing crust on sands and soils.
Animal Adaptations
Animals of desert ecosystem are much more affected by extremes of temperature than desert plants because the biological processes of animal tissue function properly within a relatively narrow temperature range. Thus, most of the animals in desert ecosystem rely on their behavioural, physiological and structural adaptations to avoid the desert heat and dryness.
The drought evader animals adopt either a short annual life cycle that revolve around the scanty rains or undergo aestivation (e.g. ground squirrel). During aestivation, the breathing, heartbeat and other body activities slowdown, this in turn decreases the need of water. Many lay eggs that survive until the next rains when they hatch in the transient puddles. On the onset of rains, a variety of animal like grasshoppers, butterflies, bees, beetles, and spider’s and more may be seen in the desert ecosystem. Amphibians like spade foot toad dig burrow with the help of its spade-like feet and goes to sleep till the rains arrive. It can undergo aestivation for 8-10 months. The birds make nest and reproduce during the rainy season when there is abundant food.
The drought resistant animals are active and carry their normal function throughout the year. They circumvent aridity and heat through morphological and physiological adaptations or by modifying their feeding and activity patterns. They remain in cool, humid underground burrows during the day time and search for food only at night when temperatures are lower.
Some xerocole rodents of desert ecosystem, that are active in the day periodically seek burrows and passively lose heat through conduction by pressing their bodies against the burrow walls. The desert toad uses a survival strategy similar to that employed by succulent plants. It stores water in its urinary bladder. The reptiles and some insects are pre-adapted to the hot desert ecosystem. They excrete a dry metabolic waste product in the form of uric acid and guanine so that water loss is minimal. They have thick waterproof skin that also minimizes water loss.
Desert spiders, mites and insects secrete a waxy layer over their cuticles. Wax is impermeable to water thus prevents loss of water from their bodies. Mammals as a group are not well adapted to desert life because they excrete urea, which involves the loss of much water.
Most of the mammals of desert ecosystem, like kangaroo rat, the pocket mouse and the jerboa have adapted nocturnal habitat. They seal their burrows by day to keep their chamber moist, and can live throughout year without drinking water. They feed on dry seeds and dry plants even when succulent green plants are available. They remain in burrows during the day, and conserve water by excreting very concentrated urine and by hygroscopic water in their food. Thus, adaptation to the desert ecosystem by these rodents is as much behavioural as physiological. Other desert ecosystem mammals like mule, deer and elk avoid the extreme temperatures of the day by limiting activity hours to dawn and dusk. The wood rats survive in parts of the desert by eating dry food as well as succulent cacti or other plants that store water. Jackrabbits and kit fox have large ears that reduce the need of water evaporation to regulate the body temperature. Their ears release heat during their resting periods in a cool, shady place.
The camel in the desert ecosystem can go for long periods without water because their body tissues can tolerate elevation in body temperature and a degree of dehydration. However, it uses water for temperature regulation. The body temperature of camel drops to 33.8ºC over night and rising to 40.6ºC by day when the animal begins to sweat.
Opposed to popular belief, camels do not store water in their hump. Their hump stores fat which yields water after its metabolic oxidation. The kangaroo rat and jerboa have long legs, which help them in jumping and swift running as well as in lifting the body above the ground and thus reducing direct contact with the hot sand.
Desert Gerbils have hairy soles on their feet which allow them excellent traction on sand. The sand rat feeds on plants that have very salty sap which can be toxic in large quantities. Thus, rats simply retain the water and excrete urine that is about four times as salty as sea water. The desert birds utilize a salt gland to help in the maintenance of water balance. They occasionally drink water from dew or other sources.
Thus, these unique natural habitats (desert) with their incredibly diverse flora and fauna have been home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations. The desert ecosystem in California support about 1200 plant species, 200 species of vertebrate animals and numerous insects and other invertebrates. Therefore, the conception of a desert as an uninhabited wasteland is not correct. Besides, we should always remember that the desert is easily damaged and is very, very slow to recover. Thus, fragile beauty and unique heritage of world’s deserts deserve protection.
Endnote-
The general conception about desert, being uninhabited wasteland is not true. This ecosystem which covers 14 percent of earths land surface is actually reservoir of rich and diverse flora and fauna
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Recent Posts
- India’s telecom market has seen monopoly as well as hyper-competition.
- Twenty-five years ago, the government alone could provide services.
- Ten years later, there were nearly a dozen competing operators.
- Most service areas now have four players.
- The erstwhile monopolies, BSNL and MTNL, are now bit players and often ignored.
- India is ranked second globally—after China—in the number of people connected to the internet. However, it is also first in the number of people unconnected.
- Over 50% of Indians are not connected to the internet, despite giant strides in network reach and capacity.
- India’s per capita or device data usage is low. It has an impressive 4G mobile network. However, its fixed network—wireline or optical fibre—is sparse and often poor.
- 5G deployment has yet to start and will be expensive.
Context
Sunil Mittal, the chairman of Bharti Airtel, said recently that it would be “tragic” if India’s telecom-access market was to be reduced to only two competing operators. He was probably referring to the possible exit of the financially-stressed Vodafone Idea and the increasing irrelevance of government-owned operators, BSNL and MTNL. This would essentially leave the market to Reliance Jio and Airtel. A looming duopoly, or the exit of a global telecommunications major, are both worrying. They deserve a careful and creative response.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]Thus Far
The reduced competition is worrying. Competition has delivered relatively low prices, advanced technologies, and an acceptable quality of services. These gains are now at risk. There is a long way to go in expanding access as well as network capacity.
The Indian Telecom Irony
Vodafone Tragedy
Filling the gaps in infrastructure and access will require large investments and competition. The exit of Vodafone Idea will hurt both objectives. The company faces an existential crisis since it was hit hardest by the Supreme Court judgment on the AGR issue in 2019, with an estimated liability of Rs 58,000 crore.
The closure of Vodafone Idea is an arguably greater concern than the fading role of BSNL and MTNL. The government companies are yet to deploy 4G and have become progressively less competitive. Vodafone Idea, on the other hand, still accounts for about a quarter of subscriptions and revenues and can boast of a quality network.
It has been adjudged the fastest, for three consecutive quarters, by Ookla, a web-service that monitors internet metrics. India can ill-afford to waste such network capacity. The company’s liabilities will deter any potential buyer.
Vodafone+MTNL+BSNL ?
A possible way out could be to combine the resources of the MTNL and BSNL and Vodafone Idea through a strategic partnership. Creative government action can save Vodafone Idea as well as improve the competitiveness of BSNL and MTNL.
It could help secure government dues, investment, and jobs. It is worth recalling here that, about 30 years ago, the Australian government’s conditions for the entry of its first private operator, Optus, required the latter to take over the loss-making government satellite company, Aussat. Similar out-of-the-box thinking may well be key to escape the looming collateral damage.
It is not trivial to expand competition in India’s telecom market. Especially since there are no major regulatory barriers to entry anymore. Any new private player will be driven largely by commercial considerations. Global experience suggests that well-entrenched incumbents have massive advantages. New players are daunted by the large investments—and much patience!—needed to set up networks, lure existing customers and sign new ones.
However, regulators and policymakers have other options to expand choice for telecom consumers. Their counterparts in mature regulatory regimes—e.g., in the European Union—have helped develop extensive markets for resale. Recognising the limited influence of smaller players, regulators mandate that the incumbent offer wholesale prices to resellers who then expand choice for end-users.
This has been virtually impossible in India. There is a near absence of noteworthy virtual network operators (VNOs) and other resellers. A key barrier to resale is India’s licence fee regime which requires licence-holders to share a proportion of their revenues with the government. Thus, resale could hurt exchequer revenues unless resellers are subject to identical levies. Understandably, the levies—and consequently additional reporting and compliance—is a disincentive for smaller players. The disincentive flows from levies based on revenues which comes with considerable costs of compliance. It would almost vanish if the levies were replaced by say, a flat fee computed objectively.
The ball is in the court of the regulator and the government. They have options. But will they take decisive action to exercise them? It will be ‘tragic’ if they can’t.
INTRODUCTION
Since most of the early scholars, researchers and historians were men, many aspects of society did not find a place in history books. For example, child-birth, menstruation, women’s work, transgenders, households etc. did not find much mention.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]Rather than building a holistic picture of the past, some select aspects such as polity and the different roles of men became the central focus of history writing. Women were confined to one corner of the chapter where a paragraph or two was devoted to the ‘status and position of women’.
Even the details of these paragraphs were hardly different from each other. This made it look like as if history (and thereby society, polity, economy and all culture) belonged to men while women were only a small static unit to be mentioned separately. Of course, there were some exceptions, but these were however rare. This practice is being corrected now and the roles and presence of women are being read into all parts of historical questions.
SOURCES FOR UNDERSTANDING GENDER HISTORY
Sources are the bases of history writing. From simple pre-historic tools to abstruse texts, everything can be utilized to understand life and roles of women in history. The presence as well as the absence of women from sources needs to be duly noticed, deliberated and argued upon and only then to be theorised upon.
Certain objects being directly related to the lives of women or depicting the ideas of the female principle are of central importance. These include but are not limited to female figurines, art objects, texts attributed to or authored or compiled by women, monuments created by or for women, various objects relating to their lifestyle, objects associated with women on account of their cultural roles and so on.
It has been rightly pointed out by Uma Chakravarti that much of the gender history written in early phase was a ‘partial view from above’. This referred to the utilization of select textual sources and focused only on relational identity of women. There were, however, a few exceptions.
GENDER HISTORIOGRAPHY
Amongst the many narratives propagated to denigrate Indian civilization and culture by the British colonial rulers, the condition of Indian women became a point of central reference. Various social evils that made the life of women miserable were pointed out and efforts were also made to introduce ‘reforms.’ Sati, child-marriages, imposed widowhood, polygamy, dowry, educational and economic inequality, purdah (ghoonghat) and many other practices prevailed during the colonial period that made the life of women difficult and pitiable.
Some practices affected women of higher social and economic households while others led to misery for poorer women. Many social reform movements were started in the 19th century to address these issues and contributions were made by Indian reformers as well as British officials and other Europeans.
Women in India came to be treated as a homogeneous category and over generalisation became the norm. While many communities in India practised widow remarriage and did not practise (much less forced) sati and while some practised divorces or separation, the image of the Indian woman who had been subjugated as woman, wife and widow became a dominant theme in history writing.
Secondly, a western vision was placed over the non-western societies and hence interpretations were far removed from the context. For example, notion of stridhan was equated with dowry and little regard was paid to the provisions regarding its use and ownership by women.
The huge social stigma that came along with the selling of jewellery of the household (one of the main components of stridhan) was paid no attention to. Similarly, penal provisions listed by ancient texts for misappropriation of women’s property were not even looked into.
During the Paleolithic age, hunting and gathering was norm. However much importance was given to Hunting than gathering in all literature of history. Studies, however, show that hunted prey formed only 35% of the diet while gathering fruits and other edible material supplied the major portion. Gathering of food resources was ordinarily done by women. Since gathering was an important activity, more than hunting for game, it could point to significant role playing by women.
The gendered understanding of Harappan civilization is being built upon and various archaeological remains have been studied in this respect. The female figurines, idols of pregnant women, the statue of the ‘dancing girl’, various pieces of jewellery and personal belongings that have been discovered at various sites and offer useful insights on the public and private lives of women and men.
The statue of a girl obtained from Mohanjodaro has been called a ‘dancing girl’ on grounds of familiarity with the institution of devadasis in the later times. Such backward looking explanations are problematic.
There is a wide variety of terracotta female figurines that have been found at different sites right from the pre-Harappan times. Women figures are found suckling a baby, holding utensils, kneading dough, nursing infants, carrying objects like drums, seated figures for board games, with steatopygia (fat deposition on the hips and elsewhere), with floral head-dresses and in many other forms.
Even figurines of pregnant women are quite common. However, most of these have been uncritically associated with fertility, religiosity and reproductive ideas, and have been passed off as representations of the Mother Goddesses. While some of them were votive objects, others are held to be toys or other utilities. The focus on female form has been so stereotypical that women have been seen as associated only with home, hearth, fertility, sexuality and divinity. So much so that sometimes even male figurines in assumed womanly roles were classified as female figurines.
POSITION OF WOMEN IN EARLY INDIA
The first literary tradition in the Indian subcontinent (and the oldest in the world) is that of the Vedic corpus. From the four Samhitas to the Upanishads, we find many interesting references to women in various roles. Some of these women have left their mark on the cultural heritage to this day and are remembered in various ritual and social contexts. Their names, stories, some highly revered hymns, and other interesting facets are mentioned in the Vedic corpus.
The Vedic literature has been classified as Early Vedic and Later Vedic. The Rigvedic society and polity seems to be teeming with life and agro-pastoral economy was enmeshed in close kinship ties. Women as well as men participated in society, economy and polity. Some of the most revered hymns including the gayatri mantra are ascribed to women.
Various natural phenomena are depicted as Goddesses and they are offered prayers. While quantitative analysis highlights the predominance of Indra, Agni, Varuna and other male gods, the power and stature of the goddesses is equally well established.
Women participated in all three Vedic socio-political assemblies viz. Sabha, Samiti and Vidhata. They had access to education and were even engaged in knowledge creation. They could choose to be brahmavadinis with or without matrimony.
Hence, there is no reason to believe that they were only confined to home and hearth. T. S. Rukmani attempts to understand if women had agency in early India. Her work has highlighted many interesting details. The author acknowledges the fact that though the patriarchal set up put women at a loss, there were instances where women found space to exercise their agency.
She points out that though the texts like the Kalpasutras (Srautasutras, Dharmasutras and Grhasutras) revolved around the ideology of Dharma and there was not much space to express alternative ideas, still these works also find some leeway to express ideas reflecting changed conditions.
For example, there is a statement in the Apastamba Dharmasutra that one should follow what women say in the funeral samskaras. Stephanie Jamison believes that in hospitality and exchange relations, women played an important role. She says that the approval of the wife was important in the successful completion of the soma sacrifice. In another study it has been shown that women enjoyed agency in deciding what was given in a sacrifice, bhiksha to a sanyasin. The men had no authority in telling her what to do in these circumstances.
Vedic society was the one which valued marriage immensely. In such contexts, Gender Perspectives if a woman chose not to marry, then it would point to her exercising choice in her decision to go against the grain and remain unmarried.
Mention may be made of Gargi. She was a composer of hymns and has been called a brahmavadini. This term applies to a woman who was a composer of hymns and chose to remain unmarried, devoting herself to the pursuit of learning.
Similarly, in the case of Maitreyi, she consciously opts to be educated in the Upanishadic lore and Yajnavalkya does not dissuade her from exercising her choice.
The statement in the Rigveda that learned daughters should marry learned bridegrooms indicates that women had a say in marriage. Though male offspring is desired, there is a mantra in the Rigveda, recitation of which ensures the birth of a learned daughter.
Altekar refers to the yajnas like seethayagna, rudrayajna etc. that were to be performed exclusively by women. Some of the women were known for their exceptional calibre, for example, from the Rigveda Samhita we find mention of women like Apala, Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Shachi, Vishwavara Atri, Sulabha and others.
Women have not only been praised as independent individuals but also with reference to their contributions towards their natal or marital families.
The Later Vedic literature shows the progression towards a State society with a change in the organization of the society and polity. The chief comes to be referred to as bhupati instead of gopati. However, within the twelve important positions (ratnis) mentioned, the chief queen retains a special position under the title mahisi.
The importance of the chief queen continued as gleaned from several references to them in the Epics, Arthashastra and even in coins and epigraphs from early historical times.
The other Samhitas also refer to women sages such as Rishikas. The wife is referred to as sahadharmini. Brahmanas or the texts dealing with the performance of the yajna (Vedic ritual), requires a man to be accompanied by his wife to be able to carry out rituals.
For example, Aitareya Brahmana looks upon the wife as essential to spiritual wholesomeness of the husband. However, there is a mention of some problematic institutions as well.
Uma Chakravarti has pointed towards the condition of Vedic Dasis (female servant/slave) who are referred to in numerous instances. They were the objects of dana (donation/gift) and dakshina (fee).
It is generally believed that from the post Vedic period the condition of the women steadily deteriorated. However, Panini’s Ashtadhyayi and subsequent grammatical literature speak highly of women acharyas and Upadhyayas.
Thus, the memory and practice of a brahmavadini continued even after the Vedic period. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and even the Puranas keep the memory of brhamavadini alive.
Mention may be made of Anasuya, Kunti, Damyanti, Draupadi, Gandhari, Rukmini who continued to fire the imagination of the poets. Texts show that the daughter of Kuni-garga refused marriage because she did not find anyone worthy of her.
The Epics also mention women whose opinions were sought in major events. For example, after the thirteen years of exile, while debating upon the future course of action regarding the restoration of their share, the Pandavas along with Krshna asks Draupadi for her views. Similarly, when Krishna goes to the Kaurava’s court to plead the case of Pandavas, Gandhari is called upon to persuade her sons to listen to reason.
Since a woman taking sanyasa was an act of transgression, one can explore women’s agency through such instances. In the Ramayana, Sabari, who was the disciple of Sage Matanga, and whose hermitage was on the banks of river Pampa was one such sanyasin.
Such women find mention in Smriti literature and Arthashashtra. Kautilya’s prohibition against initiating women into Sanyasa can make sense only if women were being initiated into sanyasa. He advises the king to employ female parivrajakas as spies.
Megasthenes mentions women who accompanied their husbands to the forest, probably referring to the Vanaprastha stage. Another category of literature called Shastras that comprises of sutras (aphorisms) and the smriti texts (‘that which is remembered’) becomes important in the postVedic period.
These textual traditions cover many subjects relating to the four kinds of pursuits of life referred to as purusharthas (namely dharma, karma, kama and moksha). In all these texts we find very liberal values and freedom for both women and men.
The setting up of a household is seen as an ideal for men as well as women (though asceticism for learning is equally praised for both). For example, Apastambha Sutra opines that rituals carried out by an unmarried man do not please the devatas (divinities). Similarly, Manusmriti provides that ‘for three years shall a girl wait after the onset of her puberty; after that time, she may find for herself a husband of equal status. If a woman who has not been given in marriage finds a husband on her own, she does not incur any sin, and neither does the man she finds’
Thus, we see that women enjoyed choice in matters of matrimony. It is interesting to note that unmarried daughters were to be provided for by the father. In fact, daughter is stated to be the object of utmost affection. Should a girl lose her parents, her economic interests were well looked after. It was provided that from their shares, ‘the brothers shall give individually to the unmarried girls, one-quarter from the share of each. Those unwilling to give will become outcastes’
With regards to defining contemporary attitude towards women, Apastambha Sutra prescribed that ‘All must make a way for a woman when she is treading a path.’ Later Dharmashastra also makes similar statements.
Yagnavalkyasmriti mentions that ‘women are the embodiment of all divine virtues on earth.’ However, there are several provisions that look problematic.
On one hand, we have reverence assigned to the feminine (divine and worldly) and important roles being played by them, on the other hand we have questionable provisions and descriptions like right to chastise them through beating or discarding.
The post-Vedic phase from 6th century BCE onwards is also rich in literary traditions with ample depictions of women. Interestingly, we have an entire body of literature that is ascribed totally to women who became Buddhist nuns. These are referred to as Therigathas i.e. the Songs of the Elder Bhikkhunis (Buddhist Women who joined the Sangha).
The Arthashastra Gender Perspectives gives us information on women who were engaged in economic activities of various kinds. They formed a part of both the skilled and the unskilled workforce. They were into professional as well as non-professional employment.
Some of their vocations were related to their gender, while the others were not. There were female state employees as well as independent working women. Similarly, some of them were engaged in activities which though not dependent on their biological constitution are nonetheless categorized as women’s domain, e.g. domestic services etc. Some of them were actual state employees, while some others were in contractual relations with the State. For example, we have female bodyguards and spies in the State employment.
Jaiswal suggests that these women perhaps came from Bhila or Kirata tribe. Female spies were not only to gather information and relay it to proper source, but also to carry out assassinations. However, a closer look at the text shows that there were different classes of female spies engaged for different purposes. Amongst others ‘women skilled in arts were to be employed as spies living inside their houses’. Others were required to work as assassins. Some were to the play the roles of young and beautiful widows to tempt the lust of greedy enemy.
We also have various Buddhist and Jaina traditions giving us some glimpses of the ideas and institutions of the times. Apart from the orthodox (Vedic and Brahmanic) and heterodox normative tradition we have many popular texts like the Epics in Sanskrit and Jatakas in Pali.
Even Prakrit language has many interesting narratives and poetic texts. The Therigatha by the Buddhist nuns are an interesting literary source that provides us with a glimpse of various women who attained arhantship or similar other stages of Realisation.
The deliberation on the age and deterioration of the body by Ambapali, the non-importance of sensual or bodily pleasures by Nanda, Vimla and Shubha etc points towards the intellectual and spiritual engagements and attainments of women.
It is interesting to note that an absolutely contrary picture is presented by the Jatakas wherein more often than not, women are depicted as evil. It is important to note that women were given an evil aura mostly in their roles as wives or beloveds.
Both the texts and the archaeological remains have been studied by various scholars and opposing interpretations are not rare. For example, on one side Sita (from Ramayana) and Draupadi (from Mahabharata) have been seen as victims of the patriarchal order; on the other hand, they are also represented as selfwilled women.
Draupadi after the game of dice presents herself as a forceful and articulate woman. It’s her wit that saves her husbands from becoming slaves of the Kauravas. Her incensed outrage at the attack on her modesty, her bitter lamentations to Krishna, her furious tirade against Yudhishthira for his seeming inability to defend her honour and many more such instances show her to be an aggressive woman. This persona is juxtaposed to her representations as an ideal wife elsewhere. However, Draupadi is never idealised as a perfect wife who endures the most severe trials without complaint. This honour is reserved for Sita in the Ramayana. She is also presented as a victim like Draupadi and voices her concern at her fate openly. However, her aggression is directed inwards as indicated by her action against the self which culminate in her union with the mother Earth.
Are the limited number of hymns ascribed to the Vedic women a signifier of their general status? Are the goddesses merely representational with no connection to the ideas and behaviour towards women? Did only princesses choose their spouses? Are the warrior women an exception? Such searching questions need to be addressed with due diligence.
While women studies are a good development there is a need to expand the horizons to include other varieties of human existence. We have narratives of fluid sexuality in various texts. The one year of Arjuna’s life spent as Brihallana and rebirth of Amba as Shikhandi are some interesting instances. The artefacts found at the site of Sheri Khan Tarakai include visibly hermaphroditic figurines. There is a need to understand the notions of the feminine, masculine, neuter, and other forms of gender and sexual identities. These will have ramifications for understanding the ideas of conjugality, family, community, society and even polity and spirituality.
CONCLUSION
Human civilisations were built by men as well as women, however, history writing has a huge male-bias. Women were confined to questions of status and position that were largely evaluated in terms of their roles in the domestic sphere.
Their treatment as wives and widows became a central focus of most research alongside their place in ritual or religious context. This made them peripheral to mainstream history. This was questioned by various scholars from time to time and led to the development of gendered understanding of history. Focusing attention on women’s history helps to rectify the method which sees women as a monolithic homogeneous category. Writing gender history has helped in building an image of the past that is wholesome and nuanced.