A universal city is marked by its inclusivity, i.e. a city that manages to include the participation of all individuals that contribute towards the city. This inclusion involves incorporating features that ensure inclusivity for all through establishing the frameworks of universal design (NYU, 2017) that can include architectural features, facilitation services, etc that aim to streamline the usufructuary experience in a universal city by offering design principles for formulating the layouts for a city.
Universal Design
Universal design in city planning can be utilized to provide accessibility and inclusion in cities for example to differently-abled people. Universal design involves the design of an environment such that its composition can be accessed and used to the greatest extent possible by beneficiaries. In this, spaces are designed such that minimum adaptive responses are required for their navigation. This involves creating systems having facilities and services that can be used by all beneficiaries targeted.
Ronald Mace of North Carolina State University introduced the seven principles that should govern universal design in 1997. He developed these principles in consort with a working group of professionals including researchers involved in environmental design, engineers, architects and product design specialists. These principles are act as a guide to generating models of universal design. The seven universal design principles are as under –
The first principle is Equitable Use, whereby the design functions fairly towards a diverse array of needs. Mace provides certain guidelines (i) provision of the same means of use to users, either identical or if not, equivalent, (ii) no stigmatization of segregation of users, (iii) provision of secure use, (iv) a design architecture that appeals to all users.
The second principle is Flexible Use, whereby a range of individual preferences and needs are addressed by the universal design. The guidelines include (i) usage methods should offer choice, (ii) left-handed usage should be accommodated in addition to right-handed use, (iii) facilitate the diverse range of skills of the users, (iv) a design system attuned to the user’s method of usage.
The third principle is the Simplicity of Use, whereby the design system is easily understandable and user-friendly. This involves (i) less complexity, (ii) consistency with the skill levels and expectations of users, (iii) provision of information appropriately, (iv) a streamlined interface for tasks.
The fourth principle is Perceptible Information, which implies the communicative capabilities of universal design. The guidelines for such are (i) effective methods of presentation, (ii) mark essential information as such and make it understandable, (iii) provisions for people with receptive limitations.
The fifth principle is Minimization of Errors, wherein errors are limited in the formulation of universal design. The involves (i) proper arrangement of elements such that risk is minimized, (ii) provision of warnings for hazards, (iii) features that are tested for fail-safe measures, (iv) discourage degenerative usage.
The sixth principle is Low Physical Effort, implying comfortable and efficient usage of universal design products and services with minimal physical effort.
The seventh principle is adequate Size and Space for Approach and Use, which as its title suggests, implies optimization the size of and space occupied by the universal design product in relation to how it can be approached and its usage (NDA Ireland, 2014). The guidelines for this principle are dependent on the nature of the product or service in question.
Universal Design in India
According to the National Centre for Accessible Environments (Samarthyam), India, thought on universal design for the universal city in India is based on the model based on Mace’s formula in 1997 (Samarthyam, 2016). The National Institute of Design (NID), India identifies universal design with sustainability, adding that these designs should serve as value propositions (NID, 2015).
The goal in India is achieving sustainable solutions that at the same time generate value at the installed locations. The practice for this is not as expansive and the focus is largely on design solutions in urban spaces for senior citizens, differently-abled people and people who suffer from reduced mobility. Installations such as ramps in public buildings are a prime example of how universal design solutions are being implemented in India, although Indian cities are yet distant from coming under the category of a universal city.
An example of where universal design can be applied in Indian cities is the layout on Indian roads, whose footpaths are littered with vendors, parked vehicles, electric poles, etc such that many a time pedestrians might prefer to walk on the road instead.
In a universal city, such experiences such as walking on footpaths should be more streamlined. Niels Schoenfelder, MD of Mancini Design told M.S. Preetha of the Hindu that education on universal design is required to have a universal city.
He added that such education can motivate people to train themselves in providing better design solutions to build a universal city (The Hindu, 2015). There is a lack of awareness in India on the notion of accessibility and inclusivity in building a universal city.
The focus in the promotion of universal design principles in India is on strongly connecting with the psyche of Indian people along with their customization to Indian conditions. Although Mace’s principles are maintained, Indian principles are also added for the purpose of customization to Indian conditions.
Equitability for example comes under new directions in the Indian context, implying non-discriminatory usage for diverse users. The principle for Usability or ‘Sahaj’ is added which is a critical principle for customization to the Indian context. Another unique principle is the Cultural principle that aims to build design systems conjoined to the notion of India’s heritage and civilization.
Also introduced is the Economic principle that aims at providing mainly affordable solutions to urban navigation in India. An emphasis is also placed on the Aesthetic principle that looks to achieve social integration and could determine the acceptability of universal design solutions in the Indian context.
In sociological literature, human communities are said to be based on the interaction of four factors, namely the natural resources in the habitat, material and non-material culture, and population. These interactions are arranged by competition and consensus, where consensus implies interdependence.
While competition in cities is driven by a race for scarce resources, the cultural superstructure is driven by consensus and communication. This cultural superstructure is composed of adaptive responses to the organization of the city and involves certain learned techniques for individuals to navigate their way around cities.
Optimizing on inclusivity as a principle for co-operation with the implementation of universal design principles would greatly improve the experience of liveability in a universal city. They also assist in dissolving some of the alienation felt by many individuals in cities and instead offer an institutional solution to co-operation in cities.
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Petrol in India is cheaper than in countries like Hong Kong, Germany and the UK but costlier than in China, Brazil, Japan, the US, Russia, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, a Bank of Baroda Economics Research report showed.
Rising fuel prices in India have led to considerable debate on which government, state or central, should be lowering their taxes to keep prices under control.
The rise in fuel prices is mainly due to the global price of crude oil (raw material for making petrol and diesel) going up. Further, a stronger dollar has added to the cost of crude oil.
Amongst comparable countries (per capita wise), prices in India are higher than those in Vietnam, Kenya, Ukraine, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Venezuela. Countries that are major oil producers have much lower prices.
In the report, the Philippines has a comparable petrol price but has a per capita income higher than India by over 50 per cent.
Countries which have a lower per capita income like Kenya, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Venezuela have much lower prices of petrol and hence are impacted less than India.
“Therefore there is still a strong case for the government to consider lowering the taxes on fuel to protect the interest of the people,” the report argued.
India is the world’s third-biggest oil consuming and importing nation. It imports 85 per cent of its oil needs and so prices retail fuel at import parity rates.
With the global surge in energy prices, the cost of producing petrol, diesel and other petroleum products also went up for oil companies in India.
They raised petrol and diesel prices by Rs 10 a litre in just over a fortnight beginning March 22 but hit a pause button soon after as the move faced criticism and the opposition parties asked the government to cut taxes instead.
India imports most of its oil from a group of countries called the ‘OPEC +’ (i.e, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Russia, etc), which produces 40% of the world’s crude oil.
As they have the power to dictate fuel supply and prices, their decision of limiting the global supply reduces supply in India, thus raising prices
The government charges about 167% tax (excise) on petrol and 129% on diesel as compared to US (20%), UK (62%), Italy and Germany (65%).
The abominable excise duty is 2/3rd of the cost, and the base price, dealer commission and freight form the rest.
Here is an approximate break-up (in Rs):
a)Base Price | 39 |
b)Freight | 0.34 |
c) Price Charged to Dealers = (a+b) | 39.34 |
d) Excise Duty | 40.17 |
e) Dealer Commission | 4.68 |
f) VAT | 25.35 |
g) Retail Selling Price | 109.54 |
Looked closely, much of the cost of petrol and diesel is due to higher tax rate by govt, specifically excise duty.
So the question is why government is not reducing the prices ?
India, being a developing country, it does require gigantic amount of funding for its infrastructure projects as well as welfare schemes.
However, we as a society is yet to be tax-compliant. Many people evade the direct tax and that’s the reason why govt’s hands are tied. Govt. needs the money to fund various programs and at the same time it is not generating enough revenue from direct taxes.
That’s the reason why, govt is bumping up its revenue through higher indirect taxes such as GST or excise duty as in the case of petrol and diesel.
Direct taxes are progressive as it taxes according to an individuals’ income however indirect tax such as excise duty or GST are regressive in the sense that the poorest of the poor and richest of the rich have to pay the same amount.
Does not matter, if you are an auto-driver or owner of a Mercedes, end of the day both pay the same price for petrol/diesel-that’s why it is regressive in nature.
But unlike direct tax where tax evasion is rampant, indirect tax can not be evaded due to their very nature and as long as huge no of Indians keep evading direct taxes, indirect tax such as excise duty will be difficult for the govt to reduce, because it may reduce the revenue and hamper may programs of the govt.
Globally, around 80% of wastewater flows back into the ecosystem without being treated or reused, according to the United Nations.
This can pose a significant environmental and health threat.
In the absence of cost-effective, sustainable, disruptive water management solutions, about 70% of sewage is discharged untreated into India’s water bodies.
A staggering 21% of diseases are caused by contaminated water in India, according to the World Bank, and one in five children die before their fifth birthday because of poor sanitation and hygiene conditions, according to Startup India.
As we confront these public health challenges emerging out of environmental concerns, expanding the scope of public health/environmental engineering science becomes pivotal.
For India to achieve its sustainable development goals of clean water and sanitation and to address the growing demands for water consumption and preservation of both surface water bodies and groundwater resources, it is essential to find and implement innovative ways of treating wastewater.
It is in this context why the specialised cadre of public health engineers, also known as sanitation engineers or environmental engineers, is best suited to provide the growing urban and rural water supply and to manage solid waste and wastewater.
Traditionally, engineering and public health have been understood as different fields.
Currently in India, civil engineering incorporates a course or two on environmental engineering for students to learn about wastewater management as a part of their pre-service and in-service training.
Most often, civil engineers do not have adequate skills to address public health problems. And public health professionals do not have adequate engineering skills.
India aims to supply 55 litres of water per person per day by 2024 under its Jal Jeevan Mission to install functional household tap connections.
The goal of reaching every rural household with functional tap water can be achieved in a sustainable and resilient manner only if the cadre of public health engineers is expanded and strengthened.
In India, public health engineering is executed by the Public Works Department or by health officials.
This differs from international trends. To manage a wastewater treatment plant in Europe, for example, a candidate must specialise in wastewater engineering.
Furthermore, public health engineering should be developed as an interdisciplinary field. Engineers can significantly contribute to public health in defining what is possible, identifying limitations, and shaping workable solutions with a problem-solving approach.
Similarly, public health professionals can contribute to engineering through well-researched understanding of health issues, measured risks and how course correction can be initiated.
Once both meet, a public health engineer can identify a health risk, work on developing concrete solutions such as new health and safety practices or specialised equipment, in order to correct the safety concern..
There is no doubt that the majority of diseases are water-related, transmitted through consumption of contaminated water, vectors breeding in stagnated water, or lack of adequate quantity of good quality water for proper personal hygiene.
Diseases cannot be contained unless we provide good quality and adequate quantity of water. Most of the world’s diseases can be prevented by considering this.
Training our young minds towards creating sustainable water management systems would be the first step.
Currently, institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras (IIT-M) are considering initiating public health engineering as a separate discipline.
To leverage this opportunity even further, India needs to scale up in the same direction.