The most saline locations on Earth contain salt, or sodium chloride, and also other minerals and contain these in much greater quantities than the ocean. The following are the locations in the world with the greatest concentration of salt, with salinity levels that in many cases are inimical for life to survive in these places.
Don Juan Pond
Among the most saline locations on Earth, in terms of natural water bodies, the most saline is the Don Juan Pond in Antarctica. The pond has a salinity level of more than 40 per cent, which keeps the pond from completely freezing, even in Antarctic winters. The pond is located in the Victoria Land in Antarctica.
In a research project conducted by geologists from Brown University, USA, it was discovered very interestingly that the incredibly saline water is composed of water absorbed from the atmosphere by parched and saline soil. This is in addition to melted snow from the surrounding areas flowing into Don Juan Pond. It leads to a very dense saltwater mixture that keeps the pond from freezing. The water thus remains fluid in what is among the coldest and driest locations on Earth (Brown University, 2017). Don Juan pond is bereft of any aquatic life.
Fig: Don Juan Pond in Antarctica
Lake Vanda
Lake Vanda, another among the most saline locations on Earth, is also located in Victoria Land in Antarctica. The lake has a length of about 5 km and a maximum depth of about 69 m. Lake Vanda is a very peculiar lake, with salinity about 10 times that of seawater, and is more saline than the Dead Sea.
Lake Vanda is also more saline than Lake Assal in Djibouti, Africa, which is the most saline hypersaline lake outside the Antarctic continent. Lake Vanda’s peculiar geological condition can be called meromictic, in that deeper waters in the lake do not mix with the shallower waters. Although Lake Vanda does not act as a habitat for any species of fish, microorganisms such as algae might be found.
Fig: Lake Vanda in Antarctica
Lake Assal
Located in western Djibouti, the literal translation of Lake Assal is the honey lake. The lake is close to the region near Djibouti City, the Great Rift Valley, Dikhil region, and the Tadjoura region, and is among the most saline locations on Earth.
Lake Assal is a volcanic lake, and is located at the top of the Great Rift Valley that passes through the Danakil Desert, and is composed of two principal divisions. The first is a dry bed of salt white in colour that is the result of the evaporation of water from the lake in earlier times, leaving behind the dry salt bed. The second portion is the very saline body of water in the lake.
The area in which lake Assal is located is also among the hottest regions on Earth, where temperatures can reach up to 50oC. Also the more one approaches the lake the warmer one feels because of volcanic activity. The salt content in the lake is harvested by the local inhabitants and the lake thus acts as a source of income for them. Although rich in salt and some other minerals, the area around the lake is very sparsely vegetated, and the lake does not support much life other than an abundant population of bacteria (naturalwondersofafrica.com, 2017).
Fig: Lake Assal in Djibouti
The Dead Sea
In Arabic the Dead Sea is called Al-Bahr Al Mayyit, or the Sea of Death. Although referred to as a sea, the Dead Sea is actually an extremely large landlocked salt lake between Israel and Jordan, located in Western Asia.
The Dead Sea is perhaps the most well known among the most saline locations on Earth. The Dead Sea is incidentally also the lowest body of water on Earth, 430 m below sea level, dropping about 1 m on a yearly basis.
The Al-Lisan Peninsula divides the lake into two disproportionate basins. About three-fourths of the lake’s total area is occupied by the northern basin, with a maximum depth of about 400 m. The remaining southern basin is considerably shallower, with an average depth of about 3 m. The subsidence of the lake has changed its geomorphology, with only the northern basin retaining its original dimensions despite great loss of water. The lake occupies a graben, which is a downfaulted part of the Earth’s crust, along a tectonic plate boundary, causing subsidence.
The Dead Sea is situated in a desert region and rainfall is scant. The lake is often seen with a think mist due to evaporation of its waters at about 55 inches a year. The salinity of the lake increases with depth, such that two different sorts of water masses can form in the lake. The salinity can reach about 300 parts per thousand at about 40 m depth. No form of life exists in the Dead Sea, among the most saline locations on earth, other than bacteria. Even fish coming in through flowing water into the Dead Sea cannot survive in it (Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 2017).
Fig: The Dead Sea in Israel/Jordan
Garabogazkol Aylagy
Garabogazkol Aylagy is a salt lagoon forming part of the Caspian Sea, and is located in a desolate region in Turkmenistan in Central Asia. At 11,265 sq km, it is the world’s largest salt lagoon and one of the most saline locations on Earth. In terms of salinity, Garabogazkol Aylagy is more saline than even the Dead Sea.
The water here is quite inimical to life, and one can see corpses of animals that have interacted with the environment in and around Garabogazkol Aylagy. Garabogazkol Aylagy is separated from the Caspian Sea by a narrow inlet of water, and this was blocked off in the 1980s over fears of discharges into the Caspian Sea. Following this Garabogazkol Aylagy began to dry off, such that pollution became a problem due to salt dust being blown around by winds. The water now is shallow and extremely salty.
The region is extremely difficult to travel to, and one would require a special permit. The only human activity in this location is salt harvesting, which also is a precarious activity.
Fig: Garabogazkol Aylagy in Turkmenistan
Qarhan Lake
Qarhan Lake in China forms a scenic landscape, forming salt corals and pillars that can at times look like a crystalline wonderland. Qarhan Lake is one among a collection of salt lakes in a basin area and is among the most saline locations on Earth.
Located in China’s Qinghai Province, the area is extensively harvested for salt and minerals. Qarhan lake has extremely high levels of potassium salts, with about 274 million tonnes of potassium estimated in reserve. The lake was formed out of the deposits of salt by rivers in a basin area with not outlet. The lake also draws water through precipitation and groundwater.
However, evaporation can cause the water in the lake to be highly saturated with saline content. The lake serves as the largest potash production base in China (Shanghai Daily, 2010). Due to the high potassium levels, the water in Qarhan lake is extremely hostile to most life.
Fig: Qarhan Lake in China
Great Salt Lake
The Great Salt Lake in Utah, USA is about 75 miles long and 35 miles wide. It is among the most saline locations in the world, and is so because of similar reasons to Qarhan Lake. The high salinity in the Great Salt Lake is due to salts brought in by water flowing into the lake but with no outlet.
The lake is a remnant of a massive Ice Age lake – Lake Bonneville – that has left indentations and traces in the landscape around the Great Salt Lake. The lake is too saline to support most forms of aquatic life such as fish, and instead hosts certain species adapted to extreme salinity such as several species of algae, brine shrimp and brine flies (utah.com, 2017).
Fig: Great Salt Lake, Utah
Salar de Uyuni
The Salar de Uyuni, also called the White Desert, is the largest salt flat in the world, and is located in Bolivia, South America. The salt flat is about 4,500 sq miles in area and is situated about 12,000 feet above sea level.
The salt flat is paved with white hexagonal tiles of salt that cover very wide expanses of areas. In the hot season the salt flat becomes a giant area littered with puddles, wherein one can see the reflection of the skies and clouds. The salt flat was formed due to the drying up of a lake in the area between 25,000 to 40,000 years ago (H. Mac Gregor, 2015). The entire area, although picturesque is a lifeless desert with sparse or literally no vegetation.
Fig: The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia
Salar de Atacama
The Salar de Atacama, or the Chilean salt flat, is the second-largest salt flat in the world, located in the Atacama Desert in Chile. The area is rich in lithium reserves, so much so that in the year 2008, the area provided 30 per cent of global lithium carbonate.
The salt flat is located in a region of the Earth that has extremely dry conditions and there is much concern over drainage patterns in the Salar de Atacama.
Fig: The Salar de Atacama in Chile
Chot el Djerid
The Chot el Djerid in Tunisia, Africa is a seasonal saltwater lake that is almost fully dry for most of the year. Irrigated by groundwater sources, the area, among the most saline locations on Earth, has a thick saline crust of sodium chloride and is reddish in certain parts due to the presence of iron content.
Fig: The Chot el Djerid in Tunisia
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Steve Ovett, the famous British middle-distance athlete, won the 800-metres gold medal at the Moscow Olympics of 1980. Just a few days later, he was about to win a 5,000-metres race at London’s Crystal Palace. Known for his burst of acceleration on the home stretch, he had supreme confidence in his ability to out-sprint rivals. With the final 100 metres remaining,
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]Ovett waved to the crowd and raised a hand in triumph. But he had celebrated a bit too early. At the finishing line, Ireland’s John Treacy edged past Ovett. For those few moments, Ovett had lost his sense of reality and ignored the possibility of a negative event.
This analogy works well for the India story and our policy failures , including during the ongoing covid pandemic. While we have never been as well prepared or had significant successes in terms of growth stability as Ovett did in his illustrious running career, we tend to celebrate too early. Indeed, we have done so many times before.
It is as if we’re convinced that India is destined for greater heights, come what may, and so we never run through the finish line. Do we and our policymakers suffer from a collective optimism bias, which, as the Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman once wrote, “may well be the most significant of the cognitive biases”? The optimism bias arises from mistaken beliefs which form expectations that are better than the reality. It makes us underestimate chances of a negative outcome and ignore warnings repeatedly.
The Indian economy had a dream run for five years from 2003-04 to 2007-08, with an average annual growth rate of around 9%. Many believed that India was on its way to clocking consistent double-digit growth and comparisons with China were rife. It was conveniently overlooked that this output expansion had come mainly came from a few sectors: automobiles, telecom and business services.
Indians were made to believe that we could sprint without high-quality education, healthcare, infrastructure or banking sectors, which form the backbone of any stable economy. The plan was to build them as we went along, but then in the euphoria of short-term success, it got lost.
India’s exports of goods grew from $20 billion in 1990-91 to over $310 billion in 2019-20. Looking at these absolute figures it would seem as if India has arrived on the world stage. However, India’s share of global trade has moved up only marginally. Even now, the country accounts for less than 2% of the world’s goods exports.
More importantly, hidden behind this performance was the role played by one sector that should have never made it to India’s list of exports—refined petroleum. The share of refined petroleum exports in India’s goods exports increased from 1.4% in 1996-97 to over 18% in 2011-12.
An import-intensive sector with low labour intensity, exports of refined petroleum zoomed because of the then policy regime of a retail price ceiling on petroleum products in the domestic market. While we have done well in the export of services, our share is still less than 4% of world exports.
India seemed to emerge from the 2008 global financial crisis relatively unscathed. But, a temporary demand push had played a role in the revival—the incomes of many households, both rural and urban, had shot up. Fiscal stimulus to the rural economy and implementation of the Sixth Pay Commission scales had led to the salaries of around 20% of organized-sector employees jumping up. We celebrated, but once again, neither did we resolve the crisis brewing elsewhere in India’s banking sector, nor did we improve our capacity for healthcare or quality education.
Employment saw little economy-wide growth in our boom years. Manufacturing jobs, if anything, shrank. But we continued to celebrate. Youth flocked to low-productivity service-sector jobs, such as those in hotels and restaurants, security and other services. The dependence on such jobs on one hand and high-skilled services on the other was bound to make Indian society more unequal.
And then, there is agriculture, an elephant in the room. If and when farm-sector reforms get implemented, celebrations would once again be premature. The vast majority of India’s farmers have small plots of land, and though these farms are at least as productive as larger ones, net absolute incomes from small plots can only be meagre.
A further rise in farm productivity and consequent increase in supply, if not matched by a demand rise, especially with access to export markets, would result in downward pressure on market prices for farm produce and a further decline in the net incomes of small farmers.
We should learn from what John Treacy did right. He didn’t give up, and pushed for the finish line like it was his only chance at winning. Treacy had years of long-distance practice. The same goes for our economy. A long grind is required to build up its base before we can win and celebrate. And Ovett did not blame anyone for his loss. We play the blame game. Everyone else, right from China and the US to ‘greedy corporates’, seems to be responsible for our failures.
We have lowered absolute poverty levels and had technology-based successes like Aadhaar and digital access to public services. But there are no short cuts to good quality and adequate healthcare and education services. We must remain optimistic but stay firmly away from the optimism bias.
In the end, it is not about how we start, but how we finish. The disastrous second wave of covid and our inability to manage it is a ghastly reminder of this fact.
On March 31, the World Economic Forum (WEF) released its annual Gender Gap Report 2021. The Global Gender Gap report is an annual report released by the WEF. The gender gap is the difference between women and men as reflected in social, political, intellectual, cultural, or economic attainments or attitudes. The gap between men and women across health, education, politics, and economics widened for the first time since records began in 2006.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]No need to remember all the data, only pick out few important ones to use in your answers.
The Global gender gap index aims to measure this gap in four key areas : health, education, economics, and politics. It surveys economies to measure gender disparity by collating and analyzing data that fall under four indices : economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment.
The 2021 Global Gender Gap Index benchmarks 156 countries on their progress towards gender parity. The index aims to serve as a compass to track progress on relative gaps between women and men in health, education, economy, and politics.
Although no country has achieved full gender parity, the top two countries (Iceland and Finland) have closed at least 85% of their gap, and the remaining seven countries (Lithuania, Namibia, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Rwanda, and Ireland) have closed at least 80% of their gap. Geographically, the global top 10 continues to be dominated by Nordic countries, with —Iceland, Norway, Finland, and Sweden—in the top five.
The top 10 is completed by one country from Asia Pacific (New Zealand 4th), two Sub-Saharan countries (Namibia, 6th and Rwanda, 7th, one country from Eastern Europe (the new entrant to the top 10, Lithuania, 8th), and another two Western European countries (Ireland, 9th, and Switzerland, 10th, another country in the top-10 for the first time).There is a relatively equitable distribution of available income, resources, and opportunities for men and women in these countries. The tremendous gender gaps are identified primarily in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia.
Here, we can discuss the overall global gender gap scores across the index’s four main components : Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment.
The indicators of the four main components are
(1) Economic Participation and Opportunity:
o Labour force participation rate,
o wage equality for similar work,
o estimated earned income,
o Legislators, senior officials, and managers,
o Professional and technical workers.
(2) Educational Attainment:
o Literacy rate (%)
o Enrollment in primary education (%)
o Enrollment in secondary education (%)
o Enrollment in tertiary education (%).
(3) Health and Survival:
o Sex ratio at birth (%)
o Healthy life expectancy (years).
(4) Political Empowerment:
o Women in Parliament (%)
o Women in Ministerial positions (%)
o Years with a female head of State (last 50 years)
o The share of tenure years.
The objective is to shed light on which factors are driving the overall average decline in the global gender gap score. The analysis results show that this year’s decline is mainly caused by a reversal in performance on the Political Empowerment gap.
Global Trends and Outcomes:
– Globally, this year, i.e., 2021, the average distance completed to gender parity gap is 68% (This means that the remaining gender gap to close stands at 32%) a step back compared to 2020 (-0.6 percentage points). These figures are mainly driven by a decline in the performance of large countries. On its current trajectory, it will now take 135.6 years to close the gender gap worldwide.
– The gender gap in Political Empowerment remains the largest of the four gaps tracked, with only 22% closed to date, having further widened since the 2020 edition of the report by 2.4 percentage points. Across the 156 countries covered by the index, women represent only 26.1% of some 35,500 Parliament seats and 22.6% of over 3,400 Ministers worldwide. In 81 countries, there has never been a woman head of State as of January 15, 2021. At the current rate of progress, the World Economic Forum estimates that it will take 145.5 years to attain gender parity in politics.
– The gender gap in Economic Participation and Opportunity remains the second-largest of the four key gaps tracked by the index. According to this year’s index results, 58% of this gap has been closed so far. The gap has seen marginal improvement since the 2020 edition of the report, and as a result, we estimate that it will take another 267.6 years to close.
– Gender gaps in Educational Attainment and Health and Survival are nearly closed. In Educational Attainment, 95% of this gender gap has been closed globally, with 37 countries already attaining gender parity. However, the ‘last mile’ of progress is proceeding slowly. The index estimates that it will take another 14.2 years to close this gap on its current trajectory completely.
In Health and Survival, 96% of this gender gap has been closed, registering a marginal decline since last year (not due to COVID-19), and the time to close this gap remains undefined. For both education and health, while progress is higher than economy and politics in the global data, there are important future implications of disruptions due to the pandemic and continued variations in quality across income, geography, race, and ethnicity.
India-Specific Findings:
India had slipped 28 spots to rank 140 out of the 156 countries covered. The pandemic causing a disproportionate impact on women jeopardizes rolling back the little progress made in the last decades-forcing more women to drop off the workforce and leaving them vulnerable to domestic violence.
India’s poor performance on the Global Gender Gap report card hints at a serious wake-up call and learning lessons from the Nordic region for the Government and policy makers.
Within the 156 countries covered, women hold only 26 percent of Parliamentary seats and 22 percent of Ministerial positions. India, in some ways, reflects this widening gap, where the number of Ministers declined from 23.1 percent in 2019 to 9.1 percent in 2021. The number of women in Parliament stands low at 14.4 percent. In India, the gender gap has widened to 62.5 %, down from 66.8% the previous year.
It is mainly due to women’s inadequate representation in politics, technical and leadership roles, a decrease in women’s labor force participation rate, poor healthcare, lagging female to male literacy ratio, and income inequality.
The gap is the widest on the political empowerment dimension, with economic participation and opportunity being next in line. However, the gap on educational attainment and health and survival has been practically bridged.
India is the third-worst performer among South Asian countries, with Pakistan and Afghanistan trailing and Bangladesh being at the top. The report states that the country fared the worst in political empowerment, regressing from 23.9% to 9.1%.
Its ranking on the health and survival dimension is among the five worst performers. The economic participation and opportunity gap saw a decline of 3% compared to 2020, while India’s educational attainment front is in the 114th position.
India has deteriorated to 51st place from 18th place in 2020 on political empowerment. Still, it has slipped to 155th position from 150th position in 2020 on health and survival, 151st place in economic participation and opportunity from 149th place, and 114th place for educational attainment from 112th.
In 2020 reports, among the 153 countries studied, India is the only country where the economic gender gap of 64.6% is larger than the political gender gap of 58.9%. In 2021 report, among the 156 countries, the economic gender gap of India is 67.4%, 3.8% gender gap in education, 6.3% gap in health and survival, and 72.4% gender gap in political empowerment. In health and survival, the gender gap of the sex ratio at birth is above 9.1%, and healthy life expectancy is almost the same.
Discrimination against women has also been reflected in Health and Survival subindex statistics. With 93.7% of this gap closed to date, India ranks among the bottom five countries in this subindex. The wide sex ratio at birth gaps is due to the high incidence of gender-based sex-selective practices. Besides, more than one in four women has faced intimate violence in her lifetime.The gender gap in the literacy rate is above 20.1%.
Yet, gender gaps persist in literacy : one-third of women are illiterate (34.2%) than 17.6% of men. In political empowerment, globally, women in Parliament is at 128th position and gender gap of 83.2%, and 90% gap in a Ministerial position. The gap in wages equality for similar work is above 51.8%. On health and survival, four large countries Pakistan, India, Vietnam, and China, fare poorly, with millions of women there not getting the same access to health as men.
The pandemic has only slowed down in its tracks the progress India was making towards achieving gender parity. The country urgently needs to focus on “health and survival,” which points towards a skewed sex ratio because of the high incidence of gender-based sex-selective practices and women’s economic participation. Women’s labour force participation rate and the share of women in technical roles declined in 2020, reducing the estimated earned income of women, one-fifth of men.
Learning from the Nordic region, noteworthy participation of women in politics, institutions, and public life is the catalyst for transformational change. Women need to be equal participants in the labour force to pioneer the societal changes the world needs in this integral period of transition.
Every effort must be directed towards achieving gender parallelism by facilitating women in leadership and decision-making positions. Social protection programmes should be gender-responsive and account for the differential needs of women and girls. Research and scientific literature also provide unequivocal evidence that countries led by women are dealing with the pandemic more effectively than many others.
Gendered inequality, thereby, is a global concern. India should focus on targeted policies and earmarked public and private investments in care and equalized access. Women are not ready to wait for another century for equality. It’s time India accelerates its efforts and fight for an inclusive, equal, global recovery.
India will not fully develop unless both women and men are equally supported to reach their full potential. There are risks, violations, and vulnerabilities women face just because they are women. Most of these risks are directly linked to women’s economic, political, social, and cultural disadvantages in their daily lives. It becomes acute during crises and disasters.
With the prevalence of gender discrimination, and social norms and practices, women become exposed to the possibility of child marriage, teenage pregnancy, child domestic work, poor education and health, sexual abuse, exploitation, and violence. Many of these manifestations will not change unless women are valued more.