Note- Important parts are highlighted or Italicized. We have tried to keep it extremely “To the Point” for Prelims, although there are certain aberration like the NGT issue or CBI where it is little elaborate but it is elaborate because it is important.
NGT- “Green Court”
The National Green Tribunal has been established on 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
The Tribunal is mandated to make and endeavour for disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the same
Initially, the NGT is proposed to be set up at five places of sittings and will follow circuit procedure for makin itself more accessible. New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai shall be the other four place of sitting of the Tribunal.
It organises International Conference on ‘Global Environmental Issues’
The Chairperson of the NGT is a retired Judge of the Supreme Court, Head Quartered in Delhi. Other Judicial members are retired Judges of High Courts. Each bench of the NGT will comprise of at least one Judicial Member and one Expert Member. Expert members should have a professional qualification and a minimum of 15 years experience in the field of environment/forest conservation and related subjects.
Powers
The NGT has the power to hear all civil cases relating to environmental issues and questions that are linked to the implementation of laws listed in Schedule I of the NGT Act. These include the following:
- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
- The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
- The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
- The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
- The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
- The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
- The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
The NGT is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural justice. Further, NGT is also not bound by the rules of evidence as enshrined in the Indian Evidence Act, 1872. Thus, it will be relatively easier (as opposed to approaching a court) for conservation groups to present facts and issues before the NGT, including pointing out technical flaws in a project, or proposing alternatives that could minimize environmental damage but which have not been considered.
While passing Orders/decisions/awards, the NGT will apply the principles of sustainable development, the precautionary principle and the polluter pays principles.
Review and Appeal
Under Rule 22 of the NGT Rules, there is a provision for seeking a Review of a decision or Order of the NGT. If this fails, an NGT Order can be challenged before the Supreme Court within ninety days.
FAQS on NGT-
1. What is the difference between a Court and a Tribunal?
The Supreme Court has answered this question by holding that “Every Court may be a tribunal but every tribunal necessarily may not be a court”. A High court for instance, where a PIL would be filed, may have wide ranging powers covering all enacted laws (including the power of contempt) but the NGT has only been vested with powers under the seven laws related to the Environment.
2. We are trying to protect a National Park/Sanctuary from various pressures including a dam proposal and widening of a highway. Should we approach the NGT?
No. As explained above, the NGT is not empowered to hear matters pertaining to issues coming under the ambit of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which is applicable in case of National Parks, Sanctuaries and Tiger Reserves. It would be appropriate to approach either the High Court in your State or the Supreme Court. Please consult a competent lawyer for advice.
3. Can I personally argue a matter before the NGT or do I need a lawyer?
Yes. You can argue the matter yourself provided you are well acquainted with the facts and are reasonably knowledgeable about the law and procedures. The language of the NGT is English, and some guidelines related to dress apply. However, it would be best if a lawyer represents you since (s)he will be better equipped to argue and handle all procedural aspects.
4. What is the penalty for non-compliance of an NGT Order?
If a project proponent or any authority does not comply with the directions contained in an NGT order, the penalty can be imprisonment for three years or fine extending to 10 crores or both. Continued failure will attract a fine of twenty five thousand rupees per day.
5. Is there a bar on civil courts to hear /take up cases under the seven specified laws in Schedule I of the NGT Act?
Yes. With the enactment of the NGT Act, Civil courts cannot hear matters related to Environmental issues under the seven laws which the NGT is empowered to deal with.
CBI
The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is the domestic intelligence and security service of India, which simultaneously serves as the nation’s prime federal law enforcement agency. It operates under the jurisdiction of the Government of India. The CBI is overseen by the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions of the Federal government, headed by a Cabinet Minister who reports directly to the Prime Minister.
The amended Delhi Special Police Establishment Act empowers a committee to appoint the director of CBI. The committee consists the following people:
- Prime Minister – chairperson
- Leader of Opposition – member
- Chief Justice of India or a Supreme Court Judge recommended by the Chief Justice – member
Above Selection committee was constituted under The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013. Before this central vigilance commissioner, under CVC act, had this power.
The legal powers of investigation of the CBI are derived from the DSPE Act 1946, which confers powers, duties, privileges and liabilities on the Delhi Special Police Establishment (CBI) and officers of the Union Territories. The central government may extend to any area (except Union Territories) the powers and jurisdiction of the CBI for investigation, subject to the consent of the government of the concerned state. Under the act, the CBI can investigate only with notification by the central government.
The High Courts and the Supreme Court have the jurisdiction to order a CBI investigation into an offence alleged to have been committed in a state without the state’s consent.
CBI is exempted from the provisions of the Right to Information Act.
Central Vigilance Commission
It has the status of an autonomous body, free of control from any executive authority, charged with monitoring all vigilance activity under the Central Government of India, advising various authorities in central Government organizations in planning, executing, reviewing and reforming their vigilance work.
It was set up by the Government of India in February, 1964 on the recommendations of the Committee on Prevention of Corruption, headed by Shri K. Santhanam, to advise and guide Central Government agencies in the field of vigilance.
The Commission shall consist of:
- A Central Vigilance Commissioner – Chairperson;
- Not more than two Vigilance Commissioners – Members
The Central Vigilance Commissioner and the Vigilance Commissioners shall be appointed by the President on recommendation of a Committee consisting of the Prime Minister (Chairperson), the Minister of Home Affairs (Member) and the Leader of the Opposition in the House of the People (Member).
Corruption investigations against government officials can proceed only after the government permits them. The CVC publishes a list of cases where permissions are pending.
The Central Vigilance Commissioner or any Vigilance Commissioner can be removed from his office only by order of the President on the ground of proved misbehavior or incapacity.
CVC is a public authority as defined in the Right to Information Act and hence it is obliged to provide information requested by any citizen of India.
CVC is only an advisory body. Central Government Departments are free to either accept or reject CVC’s advice in corruption cases. CVC does not have powers to register criminal case. It deals only with vigilance or disciplinary cases
Siddeswaram irrigation weir (alugu) on Krishna river in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh
Weir– A low dam built to raise the level of water upstream or regulate the flow.
IPC
Sections 124A (sedition) and 500 (defamation).
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) treaty-
NPT has had no impact on nuclear arms reductions. Its limitations are apparent in that it recognises only five nuclear weapon states (the U.S., Russia, the United Kingdom, France and China) but is unable to deal with the reality of India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea’s weapon programmes. (Prelims question 2016)
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament
The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China. Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, and North Korea have openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, while Israel is deliberately ambiguous regarding its nuclear weapons status.
Nuclear Suppliers Group
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment and technology that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.
The NSG was founded in response to the Indian nuclear test in May 1974.
Zangger Committee, also known as the Nuclear Exporters Committee, sprang from Article III.2 of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) which entered into force on March 5, 1970. Under the terms of Article III.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards must be applied to nuclear exports.
Trigger List-The Zangger Committee and the Nuclear Suppliers Group maintain lists of items that may contribute to nuclear proliferation; The nuclear non-proliferation treaty forbids its members to export such items to non-treaty members. these items are said to trigger the countries’ responsibilities under the NPT, hence the name.
London Club-The name of the “London Club” was due to the series of meetings in London. It has also been referred to as the London Group, or the London Suppliers Group.
International Atomic Energy Agency,Vienna
The IAEA was established as an autonomous organisation on 29 July 1957. Though established independently of the United Nations through its own international treaty, the IAEA Statute,the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council.
India is a member of IAEA.
Kerabha Jungle– Lion- Part of Gir NP, Gujrat
Lion-tailed macaques – Endangered-Found in Western Ghat (More specifically Agumbe ghat, Karnataka)
Kanjarbhat community– A nomadic tribe from Maharashtra
Rahim Pragati Producer Company Ltd (RPCL) , Dewas, Madhya Pradesh
A farmers’ produce organisation (FPO) that helps them secure the best possible price for their produce besides good-quality, pesticide-free seeds. The tribal women of MP have formed a farmers’ produce organisation in Dewas that bypasses exploitative middlemen to access markets directly.
Most of its members are small and marginal farmers with average land holding of less than a hectare.What sets RPCL apart from other FPOs in the country is that its board of directors and shareholders comprise tribal women farmers.
RPCL has even helped farmers sell their produce directly on the National Commodity & Derivatives Exchange Ltd to get better prices than the mandis.
Samaj Pragati Sahayog (SPS), a not-for-profit organisation that played a key role in establishing RPCL.
Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI),
Nikkei Manufacturing Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI), compiled by Markit.
The Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) is an indicator of the economic health of the manufacturing sector. The PMI is based on five major indicators: new orders, inventory levels, production, supplier deliveries and the employment environment.
Tiger Temple in Thailand
The temple, a Buddhist monastery that ofered paying tourists close contact with tigers, has long been accused by conservationists and animal rights activists of exploiting and abusing the animals, accusations the temple has denied.
‘Einstein ring’
An international team of astrophysicists has stumbled upon an unusual astronomical object — an Einstein ring which is a distorted image of a very distant galaxy termed as “the source”.
The distortion is produced by the bending of the light rays from the source due to a massive galaxy, termed “the lens”, lying between it and the observer
Indra Dhanush programme – Patronage to classical artist by president
One of the multifarious roles that the President of India assumes as the first citizen is that of patron-in-chief of the arts. He presides over award ceremonies to artists and all awards are given in his name. The State, has had to assume patronage of the classical arts after the breakdown of the princely states after 1947, and heading this initiative is the President.
The distinctive Indra Dhanush logo was created so that an identity was established. In the words of the President, “Our national bird –– the peacock –– which now symbolises Indra Dhanush represents, in the true sense, the diversity, uniqueness and brilliance of India’s performing arts and music.”
Projects by Telengana Government
Mission Kakatiya or Mana Ooru Mana Cheruvu is a program of restoring all the tanks and lakes in Telangana.
Mission Bhagirathi- objective to provide safe drinking water to all.100 litre/person in rural areas, 150 litre/person in urban areas
Haaritha Haaram- to increase tree cover from 24% to 33%
Shangri-La Dialogue
The IISS Asia Security Summit: The Shangri-La Dialogue (SLD) is a “Track One” inter-governmental security forum held annually by an independent think tank, the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) which is attended by defense ministers, permanent heads of ministries and military chiefs of 28 Asia-Pacific states. The forum gets its name from the Shangri-La Hotel in Singapore where it has been held since 2002.
Pakistan is not a member but China is.
What defines a monsoon?
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, HQ-Singapore
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a forum for 21 Pacific Rim member economies that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region. It was established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional trade blocs in other parts of the world; to defuse fears that highly industrialised Japan (a member of G8) would come to dominate economic activity in the Asia-Pacific region; and to establish new markets for agricultural products and raw materials beyond Europe
After Chabahar, India eyes port in Bangladesh
After bagging the strategically important Chabahar Port in Iran, the government is looking eastwards and is in discussions with Bangladesh to develop a similar facility in Paira.
India Ports Global, the joint venture between the state-run JNPT and Kandla Port for overseas ports.
Farzad-B gas project
Iranian gas field that India is working on.
The Farzad-B field, discovered in 2012, is estimated to have 21.68 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of gas reserves. The deal with Iran would see development of the field by a consortium of Indian companies
led by ONGC Videsh, the overseas arm of state-run Oil and Natural Gas Corporation.
Model Code of Conduct (Only the important ones)
The Constitution under Article 324 mandates the Election Commission, to conduct elections inter alia to the Parliament and the State Legislatures
No criticism of all aspects of private life, no appeal on the basis of religion,caste etc
No canvassing within 100 meters of polling stations and no transport and conveyance of voters to and from polling station.
Organizing demonstrations or picketing before the houses of individuals by way of protesting against their opinions or activities shall not be resorted to under any circumstances.
The Directive Principles of State Policy enshrined in the Constitution enjoin upon the State to frame various welfare measures for the citizens and therefore there can be no objection to the promise of such welfare measures in election manifestos. Manifestos should reflect the rationale for the promises and broadly indicate the ways and means to meet the financial requirements for it
S. Subramaniam Balaji Vs Govt. of Tamil Nadu and Others
The Supreme Court in its judgment dated 5th July 2013 in SLP(C) No. 21455 of 2008 ( S. Subramaniam Balaji Vs Govt. of Tamil Nadu and Others) has directed the Election Commission to frame guidelines with regard to the contents of election manifestos in consultation with all the recognized political parties.
The guiding principles are-
“Although, the law is obvious that the promises in the election manifesto cannot be construed as ‘corrupt practice’ under Section 123 of RP Act, the reality cannot be ruled out that distribution of freebies of any kind, undoubtedly, influences all people. It shakes the root of free and fair elections to a large degree”.
For the party in power it bars the ministers from following-
shall not sanction grants/payments out of discretionary funds from the time elections are announced by the Commission
Shall not announce any financial grants in any form or promises thereof
Shall not make any promise of construction of roads, provision of drinking water facilities etc
Shall not make any ad-hoc appointments in Government, Public Undertakings etc.
Under the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, a minor who is above 16 years of age and is accused of committing a ‘heinous crime’, defined as an offence that attracts a jail term of seven years or more, may be tried as an adult, if the juvenile justice board allows it after making a preliminary assessment.
Operation Sesha
To rein in the rising smuggling of red sanders wood, the directorate of revenue intelligence (DRI) has reached out to 17 countries to bust organised syndicates of the smugglers of the precious wood and trace their origin.
The programme — Operation Sesha (derived from Seshachalam forest) — has roped in Malaysia, Hong Kong, Korea, Japan, China, Nepal, Myanmar, Vietnam, Maldives, Pakistan and the Philippines, among others, to track down smugglers of the precious wood, which is an endangered plant species under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora, an international agreement between governments.
Jerdons Curoser- Critically Endangered – mostly found in Seshachallam Hills
Tigernet– a directory of tigers and other wildlife mortality.
Eugenics- the science of improving a population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics.
Kanwar Lake, Bihar – Asia’s largest fresh water lake.
Wetland Atlas of India says the country has 1,88,470 inland wetlands,
Maltitol, a sweetening agent, is used to fill in the bone gap caused by fracture, instead of the traditional rod – IISC
LISA Pathfinder-LISA Pathfinder, formerly Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology-2 (SMART-2), is an Europeaan Space Agencey spacecraft.
The mission will test technologies needed for the Evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (eLISA), an ESA gravitational wave observatory planned to be launched in 2034. The scientific phase started on 8 March 2016 and will last 6 months.
LISA Pathfinder is a proof-of-concept mission to prove that the two masses can fly through space, untouched but shielded by the spacecraft, and maintain their relative positions to the precision needed to realise a full gravitational wave observatory planned for launch in 2034.
Pelindaba Treaty- (named after South Africa’s main Nuclear Research Centre, run by The South African Nuclear Energy Corporation and was the location where South Africa’s atomic bombs of the 1970s were developed, constructed and subsequently stored), establishes a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Africa. The treaty was signed in 1996 and came into effect with the 28th ratification on 15 July 2009.
The Treaty prohibits the research, development, manufacture, stockpiling, acquisition, testing, possession, control or stationing of nuclear explosive devices in the territory of parties to the Treaty and the dumping of radioactive wastes in the African zone by Treaty parties. The Treaty also prohibits any attack against nuclear installations in the zone by Treaty parties.
India has asked African countries to relax commitment to the Pelindaba Treaty which controls supply of uranium from key mineral hubs of Africa to the rest of the world.
India and Namibia signed two MoUs on Cooperation in the field of geology and mineral resources and Cooperation in peaceful uses of nuclear energy, However the Pelindaba Treaty has prevented it from ratifying the agreements. Namibia is the fourth largest producer of uranium.
Ken-Betwa project – Environmentalists say the river interlinking project will submerge at least 4,000 hectares of Panna tiger reserve, and vulture nests in the region will be threatened.
About the project– transfer surplus water from the Uttar Pradesh section of the Ken to the Betwa in Madhya Pradesh are critical to irrigate nearly 7,00,000 hectares in drought-ravaged Bundelkhand
Hysterectomy– a surgical operation to remove all or part of the uterus.
Background-Several Lambada tribal women in the villages of Kowdipally mandal of Medak district had undergone hysterectomies — as early as in their twenties. Sensing something amiss, the Centre for Action, Research and People’s Development (CARPED) undertook a door-to-door survey and recorded 728 such cases.
Lambada tribe- Telengana / Andhra Pradesh
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, the gatekeeper to the periodic table, has announced the proposed names for elements 113, 115, 117 and 118: nihonium, moscovium, tennessine and oganesson.
Global Peace Index – Institute for Economics and Peace
The index gauges global peace using three broad themes: the level of safety and security in society, the extent of domestic and international conflict and the degree of militarization.
Iceland-1, India-141
HGP-Write-
The so-called Human Genome Project–Write, or HGP-Write, is a project where the scientist hope to actually write or synthesise all six billion DNA letters of a human genome.
Kheer Bhawani Temple in Ganderbal, J& K
Bharathapuzha river is in Kerala
Maa Maariamma Temple- Jalndhar,Punjab, -walk on burning fire ritual
TERI– The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) is a leading think tank dedicated to conducting research for sustainable development of India and the Global South.
TERI was established in 1974 as an information centre on energy issues. However, over the following decades, it made a mark as a research institute, whose policy and technology solutions transformed people’s lives and the environment.
TERI’s key focus lies in promoting:
- Clean energy
- Water management
- Pollution management
- Sustainable agriculture
- Climate resilience
Dipor Beel- wetland under the Ramsar Convention, Assam
BirdLife International has declared Deepor Beel as an Important Bird Area (IBA) with high priority for conservation.
Isaac Kehimkar, popularly known as ‘the Butterfly Man of India.’Mr. Kehimkar has already published two comprehensive field guides — Common Indian Wildflowers and the Book of Indian Butterflies for the BNHS.
Andhra Pradesh – first State to get permission to start its own Internet Protocol-based television network
INSV Mhadei – steered by an all-woman, six-member crew that will attempt to circumnavigate the world
Pallium, the part of the brain that corresponds to cerebral cortex, which supports higher cognition functions such as planning for the future or finding patterns.
Bramble Cay melomys , an Australian rodent may be first species to go extinct due to climate change. It is a mammal
Drinking hot beverages above 65C is carcinogenic – International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is part of the World Health Organization. IARC coordinates and conducts both epidemiological and laboratory research into the causes of human cancer.
Giant African Snails -are marching on to more districts of Kerala, the Forest Research Institute of the State has warned. They could decimate standing crop and threaten the health of children, besides devouring calcium from house walls,Considered one of 100 most invasive species in the world, Giant African Snails (Achatina fulica) feed on several plants.They destroy almost all crops and can live in a dormant state for 2-3 years. The snails are an intermediate host of the rat lung worm that causes oesinophilic meningitis in children below five years.
of age.
The snail requires large amounts of calcium to maintain its big shell. As the soil in Kerala is poor in calcium content, the species utilise the calcium in compound walls and buildings, thus damaging them.
Wildlife laws divide species into ‘schedules’ ranked from I to V. Schedule I members are the best protected, in theory, with severe punishments meted out to those who hunt them. Wild boars, nilgai and rhesus monkeys are Schedule II and III members — also protected, but can be hunted under specific conditions. Crows and fruit bat fall in Schedule 5, the vermin category.
NRIs can now apply online for National Pension Scheme
Taxidermy-Taxidermy is the preserving of an animal’s body via stuffing or mounting for the purpose of display or study.
Santosh Gaikwad at the taxidermy centre in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park,Mumbai. He is the country’s only taxidermist authorised by the government.
Mohana Singh, Avani Chaturvedi and Bhawana Kanth, India’s first woman fighter pilots
Mangar Bani- It is Aravalli’s ancient forest grove around Delhi. It also serve as wildlife corridor between the Asola wildlife sanctuary in Delhi and the Sariska national park in Rajasthan.
Kapu refers to a social grouping of agriculturists found primarily in the southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana (the Telugu-speaking states). Kapus are primarily an agrarian community, forming a heterogeneous peasant caste. They are classified as a Forward Caste in Andhra Pradesh, where they are the dominant community in the districts of East Godavari and West Godavari
Neyyar sanctuary- The Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in the southern state of Kerala in India is spread over the southeast corner of the Western Ghats,
Skyglow
Skyglow, or artificial skyglow as it is sometimes called, is a term used by scientists to refer to the brightening of the night sky in inhabited areas. It shows how much of the natural night sky is obscured because of light from the ground below. Daily, seasonal, and lunar cycles of light that had previously been important for years have been dramatically altered by the spread of both public and private night-time lighting. The introduction of artificial light has caused an unprecedented disruption to the night-time environment over large areas of the earth. A team of scientists last week prepared an atlas of sky glowand have reported that the Milky Way is no longer visible to one-third of humanity. This light pollution, say scientists, has a bearing on human circadian rhythms and also disrupts other ecological processes.
Langtang-A crater in Mars has been named after Langtang, one of the villages hit by an earthquake in Nepal in 2015.
Kongsfjorden-
Kongsfjorden is an established reference site for the Arctic marine studies. The Kongsfjorden has been considered as a natural laboratory for studying the Arctic climate variability, as it receives varying climatic signals from the Arcitc/Atlantic in the course of an annual seasonal cycle.
There exists a great need to know on how the fjord system is influenced by, or responds to exchanges with the water on the shelf and in the deep sea outside during an entire annual seasonal cycle. In particular, there is a need for continuous observations of the water transport into the interior part of the fjord. One of the major constraints in such a study has been the difficulty in reaching the location during the harsh Arctic winter and obtaining near-surface data. The IndARC observatory is an attempt to overcome this lacuna and collect continuous data from depths very close to the water surface as well as at different discrete depths
Italian composer and pianist Ludovico Einaudi performs one of his compositions on a floating platform in the Arctic Ocean, in front of the Wahlenbergbreen glacier, in Svalbard, Norway. The composition, Elegy for the Arctic, was inspired by eight million voices from around the world calling for Arctic protection.
*Not Important but who knows, last year UPSC asked a question on movies.Question can be framed like –
Elegy for Arctic, which was in news recently refers to :-
a) A civil society movement to protect Arctic
b) A campaign launched by Greenpeace against the exploitation of Arctic
c) An UN treaty that deals with arctic protection through consensus
d) A musical composition that highlights and draws attention for arctic protection.
And, if not aware most of us will opt for b or c.
In his accounts belonging to 7th century A.D., Hiuen Tsang talked about ten Buddhist monasteries flourishing in Onantopulo, or Anandpura, the ancient name of Vadnagar.The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has unearthed structures resembling a Buddhist monastery in Vadnagar city of Gujarat.
Buddhism in its various forms spread across the world due to the efforts of monks, scholars and missionaries. One such person was Kumarajiva. Born in CE 350, he broke political, geographical, cultural and linguistic barriers for a long-cherished mission — propagation of the true spirit of Buddhism. His father belonged to a politically-powerful Kashmiri family, while his mother was the Princess of Kucha, a kingdom on the Silk Route.
While LED lighting has several advantages, the excessive blue light it emits can be harmful. The human eye perceives the large amount of blue light emitted by some LEDs as white. Blue light directly affects sleep by suppressing the production of the hormone melatonin, which mediates the sleepwake cycle in humans.
The correlated colour temperature (CCT) of firstgeneration LEDs, which are currently used, is 4,000K. Higher CCT values indicate greater blue light emission, and in the case of 4,000K LED lighting, 29 per cent of the spectrum is emitted as blue light.
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INTRODUCTION
Since most of the early scholars, researchers and historians were men, many aspects of society did not find a place in history books. For example, child-birth, menstruation, women’s work, transgenders, households etc. did not find much mention.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]Rather than building a holistic picture of the past, some select aspects such as polity and the different roles of men became the central focus of history writing. Women were confined to one corner of the chapter where a paragraph or two was devoted to the ‘status and position of women’.
Even the details of these paragraphs were hardly different from each other. This made it look like as if history (and thereby society, polity, economy and all culture) belonged to men while women were only a small static unit to be mentioned separately. Of course, there were some exceptions, but these were however rare. This practice is being corrected now and the roles and presence of women are being read into all parts of historical questions.
SOURCES FOR UNDERSTANDING GENDER HISTORY
Sources are the bases of history writing. From simple pre-historic tools to abstruse texts, everything can be utilized to understand life and roles of women in history. The presence as well as the absence of women from sources needs to be duly noticed, deliberated and argued upon and only then to be theorised upon.
Certain objects being directly related to the lives of women or depicting the ideas of the female principle are of central importance. These include but are not limited to female figurines, art objects, texts attributed to or authored or compiled by women, monuments created by or for women, various objects relating to their lifestyle, objects associated with women on account of their cultural roles and so on.
It has been rightly pointed out by Uma Chakravarti that much of the gender history written in early phase was a ‘partial view from above’. This referred to the utilization of select textual sources and focused only on relational identity of women. There were, however, a few exceptions.
GENDER HISTORIOGRAPHY
Amongst the many narratives propagated to denigrate Indian civilization and culture by the British colonial rulers, the condition of Indian women became a point of central reference. Various social evils that made the life of women miserable were pointed out and efforts were also made to introduce ‘reforms.’ Sati, child-marriages, imposed widowhood, polygamy, dowry, educational and economic inequality, purdah (ghoonghat) and many other practices prevailed during the colonial period that made the life of women difficult and pitiable.
Some practices affected women of higher social and economic households while others led to misery for poorer women. Many social reform movements were started in the 19th century to address these issues and contributions were made by Indian reformers as well as British officials and other Europeans.
Women in India came to be treated as a homogeneous category and over generalisation became the norm. While many communities in India practised widow remarriage and did not practise (much less forced) sati and while some practised divorces or separation, the image of the Indian woman who had been subjugated as woman, wife and widow became a dominant theme in history writing.
Secondly, a western vision was placed over the non-western societies and hence interpretations were far removed from the context. For example, notion of stridhan was equated with dowry and little regard was paid to the provisions regarding its use and ownership by women.
The huge social stigma that came along with the selling of jewellery of the household (one of the main components of stridhan) was paid no attention to. Similarly, penal provisions listed by ancient texts for misappropriation of women’s property were not even looked into.
During the Paleolithic age, hunting and gathering was norm. However much importance was given to Hunting than gathering in all literature of history. Studies, however, show that hunted prey formed only 35% of the diet while gathering fruits and other edible material supplied the major portion. Gathering of food resources was ordinarily done by women. Since gathering was an important activity, more than hunting for game, it could point to significant role playing by women.
The gendered understanding of Harappan civilization is being built upon and various archaeological remains have been studied in this respect. The female figurines, idols of pregnant women, the statue of the ‘dancing girl’, various pieces of jewellery and personal belongings that have been discovered at various sites and offer useful insights on the public and private lives of women and men.
The statue of a girl obtained from Mohanjodaro has been called a ‘dancing girl’ on grounds of familiarity with the institution of devadasis in the later times. Such backward looking explanations are problematic.
There is a wide variety of terracotta female figurines that have been found at different sites right from the pre-Harappan times. Women figures are found suckling a baby, holding utensils, kneading dough, nursing infants, carrying objects like drums, seated figures for board games, with steatopygia (fat deposition on the hips and elsewhere), with floral head-dresses and in many other forms.
Even figurines of pregnant women are quite common. However, most of these have been uncritically associated with fertility, religiosity and reproductive ideas, and have been passed off as representations of the Mother Goddesses. While some of them were votive objects, others are held to be toys or other utilities. The focus on female form has been so stereotypical that women have been seen as associated only with home, hearth, fertility, sexuality and divinity. So much so that sometimes even male figurines in assumed womanly roles were classified as female figurines.
POSITION OF WOMEN IN EARLY INDIA
The first literary tradition in the Indian subcontinent (and the oldest in the world) is that of the Vedic corpus. From the four Samhitas to the Upanishads, we find many interesting references to women in various roles. Some of these women have left their mark on the cultural heritage to this day and are remembered in various ritual and social contexts. Their names, stories, some highly revered hymns, and other interesting facets are mentioned in the Vedic corpus.
The Vedic literature has been classified as Early Vedic and Later Vedic. The Rigvedic society and polity seems to be teeming with life and agro-pastoral economy was enmeshed in close kinship ties. Women as well as men participated in society, economy and polity. Some of the most revered hymns including the gayatri mantra are ascribed to women.
Various natural phenomena are depicted as Goddesses and they are offered prayers. While quantitative analysis highlights the predominance of Indra, Agni, Varuna and other male gods, the power and stature of the goddesses is equally well established.
Women participated in all three Vedic socio-political assemblies viz. Sabha, Samiti and Vidhata. They had access to education and were even engaged in knowledge creation. They could choose to be brahmavadinis with or without matrimony.
Hence, there is no reason to believe that they were only confined to home and hearth. T. S. Rukmani attempts to understand if women had agency in early India. Her work has highlighted many interesting details. The author acknowledges the fact that though the patriarchal set up put women at a loss, there were instances where women found space to exercise their agency.
She points out that though the texts like the Kalpasutras (Srautasutras, Dharmasutras and Grhasutras) revolved around the ideology of Dharma and there was not much space to express alternative ideas, still these works also find some leeway to express ideas reflecting changed conditions.
For example, there is a statement in the Apastamba Dharmasutra that one should follow what women say in the funeral samskaras. Stephanie Jamison believes that in hospitality and exchange relations, women played an important role. She says that the approval of the wife was important in the successful completion of the soma sacrifice. In another study it has been shown that women enjoyed agency in deciding what was given in a sacrifice, bhiksha to a sanyasin. The men had no authority in telling her what to do in these circumstances.
Vedic society was the one which valued marriage immensely. In such contexts, Gender Perspectives if a woman chose not to marry, then it would point to her exercising choice in her decision to go against the grain and remain unmarried.
Mention may be made of Gargi. She was a composer of hymns and has been called a brahmavadini. This term applies to a woman who was a composer of hymns and chose to remain unmarried, devoting herself to the pursuit of learning.
Similarly, in the case of Maitreyi, she consciously opts to be educated in the Upanishadic lore and Yajnavalkya does not dissuade her from exercising her choice.
The statement in the Rigveda that learned daughters should marry learned bridegrooms indicates that women had a say in marriage. Though male offspring is desired, there is a mantra in the Rigveda, recitation of which ensures the birth of a learned daughter.
Altekar refers to the yajnas like seethayagna, rudrayajna etc. that were to be performed exclusively by women. Some of the women were known for their exceptional calibre, for example, from the Rigveda Samhita we find mention of women like Apala, Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Shachi, Vishwavara Atri, Sulabha and others.
Women have not only been praised as independent individuals but also with reference to their contributions towards their natal or marital families.
The Later Vedic literature shows the progression towards a State society with a change in the organization of the society and polity. The chief comes to be referred to as bhupati instead of gopati. However, within the twelve important positions (ratnis) mentioned, the chief queen retains a special position under the title mahisi.
The importance of the chief queen continued as gleaned from several references to them in the Epics, Arthashastra and even in coins and epigraphs from early historical times.
The other Samhitas also refer to women sages such as Rishikas. The wife is referred to as sahadharmini. Brahmanas or the texts dealing with the performance of the yajna (Vedic ritual), requires a man to be accompanied by his wife to be able to carry out rituals.
For example, Aitareya Brahmana looks upon the wife as essential to spiritual wholesomeness of the husband. However, there is a mention of some problematic institutions as well.
Uma Chakravarti has pointed towards the condition of Vedic Dasis (female servant/slave) who are referred to in numerous instances. They were the objects of dana (donation/gift) and dakshina (fee).
It is generally believed that from the post Vedic period the condition of the women steadily deteriorated. However, Panini’s Ashtadhyayi and subsequent grammatical literature speak highly of women acharyas and Upadhyayas.
Thus, the memory and practice of a brahmavadini continued even after the Vedic period. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and even the Puranas keep the memory of brhamavadini alive.
Mention may be made of Anasuya, Kunti, Damyanti, Draupadi, Gandhari, Rukmini who continued to fire the imagination of the poets. Texts show that the daughter of Kuni-garga refused marriage because she did not find anyone worthy of her.
The Epics also mention women whose opinions were sought in major events. For example, after the thirteen years of exile, while debating upon the future course of action regarding the restoration of their share, the Pandavas along with Krshna asks Draupadi for her views. Similarly, when Krishna goes to the Kaurava’s court to plead the case of Pandavas, Gandhari is called upon to persuade her sons to listen to reason.
Since a woman taking sanyasa was an act of transgression, one can explore women’s agency through such instances. In the Ramayana, Sabari, who was the disciple of Sage Matanga, and whose hermitage was on the banks of river Pampa was one such sanyasin.
Such women find mention in Smriti literature and Arthashashtra. Kautilya’s prohibition against initiating women into Sanyasa can make sense only if women were being initiated into sanyasa. He advises the king to employ female parivrajakas as spies.
Megasthenes mentions women who accompanied their husbands to the forest, probably referring to the Vanaprastha stage. Another category of literature called Shastras that comprises of sutras (aphorisms) and the smriti texts (‘that which is remembered’) becomes important in the postVedic period.
These textual traditions cover many subjects relating to the four kinds of pursuits of life referred to as purusharthas (namely dharma, karma, kama and moksha). In all these texts we find very liberal values and freedom for both women and men.
The setting up of a household is seen as an ideal for men as well as women (though asceticism for learning is equally praised for both). For example, Apastambha Sutra opines that rituals carried out by an unmarried man do not please the devatas (divinities). Similarly, Manusmriti provides that ‘for three years shall a girl wait after the onset of her puberty; after that time, she may find for herself a husband of equal status. If a woman who has not been given in marriage finds a husband on her own, she does not incur any sin, and neither does the man she finds’
Thus, we see that women enjoyed choice in matters of matrimony. It is interesting to note that unmarried daughters were to be provided for by the father. In fact, daughter is stated to be the object of utmost affection. Should a girl lose her parents, her economic interests were well looked after. It was provided that from their shares, ‘the brothers shall give individually to the unmarried girls, one-quarter from the share of each. Those unwilling to give will become outcastes’
With regards to defining contemporary attitude towards women, Apastambha Sutra prescribed that ‘All must make a way for a woman when she is treading a path.’ Later Dharmashastra also makes similar statements.
Yagnavalkyasmriti mentions that ‘women are the embodiment of all divine virtues on earth.’ However, there are several provisions that look problematic.
On one hand, we have reverence assigned to the feminine (divine and worldly) and important roles being played by them, on the other hand we have questionable provisions and descriptions like right to chastise them through beating or discarding.
The post-Vedic phase from 6th century BCE onwards is also rich in literary traditions with ample depictions of women. Interestingly, we have an entire body of literature that is ascribed totally to women who became Buddhist nuns. These are referred to as Therigathas i.e. the Songs of the Elder Bhikkhunis (Buddhist Women who joined the Sangha).
The Arthashastra Gender Perspectives gives us information on women who were engaged in economic activities of various kinds. They formed a part of both the skilled and the unskilled workforce. They were into professional as well as non-professional employment.
Some of their vocations were related to their gender, while the others were not. There were female state employees as well as independent working women. Similarly, some of them were engaged in activities which though not dependent on their biological constitution are nonetheless categorized as women’s domain, e.g. domestic services etc. Some of them were actual state employees, while some others were in contractual relations with the State. For example, we have female bodyguards and spies in the State employment.
Jaiswal suggests that these women perhaps came from Bhila or Kirata tribe. Female spies were not only to gather information and relay it to proper source, but also to carry out assassinations. However, a closer look at the text shows that there were different classes of female spies engaged for different purposes. Amongst others ‘women skilled in arts were to be employed as spies living inside their houses’. Others were required to work as assassins. Some were to the play the roles of young and beautiful widows to tempt the lust of greedy enemy.
We also have various Buddhist and Jaina traditions giving us some glimpses of the ideas and institutions of the times. Apart from the orthodox (Vedic and Brahmanic) and heterodox normative tradition we have many popular texts like the Epics in Sanskrit and Jatakas in Pali.
Even Prakrit language has many interesting narratives and poetic texts. The Therigatha by the Buddhist nuns are an interesting literary source that provides us with a glimpse of various women who attained arhantship or similar other stages of Realisation.
The deliberation on the age and deterioration of the body by Ambapali, the non-importance of sensual or bodily pleasures by Nanda, Vimla and Shubha etc points towards the intellectual and spiritual engagements and attainments of women.
It is interesting to note that an absolutely contrary picture is presented by the Jatakas wherein more often than not, women are depicted as evil. It is important to note that women were given an evil aura mostly in their roles as wives or beloveds.
Both the texts and the archaeological remains have been studied by various scholars and opposing interpretations are not rare. For example, on one side Sita (from Ramayana) and Draupadi (from Mahabharata) have been seen as victims of the patriarchal order; on the other hand, they are also represented as selfwilled women.
Draupadi after the game of dice presents herself as a forceful and articulate woman. It’s her wit that saves her husbands from becoming slaves of the Kauravas. Her incensed outrage at the attack on her modesty, her bitter lamentations to Krishna, her furious tirade against Yudhishthira for his seeming inability to defend her honour and many more such instances show her to be an aggressive woman. This persona is juxtaposed to her representations as an ideal wife elsewhere. However, Draupadi is never idealised as a perfect wife who endures the most severe trials without complaint. This honour is reserved for Sita in the Ramayana. She is also presented as a victim like Draupadi and voices her concern at her fate openly. However, her aggression is directed inwards as indicated by her action against the self which culminate in her union with the mother Earth.
Are the limited number of hymns ascribed to the Vedic women a signifier of their general status? Are the goddesses merely representational with no connection to the ideas and behaviour towards women? Did only princesses choose their spouses? Are the warrior women an exception? Such searching questions need to be addressed with due diligence.
While women studies are a good development there is a need to expand the horizons to include other varieties of human existence. We have narratives of fluid sexuality in various texts. The one year of Arjuna’s life spent as Brihallana and rebirth of Amba as Shikhandi are some interesting instances. The artefacts found at the site of Sheri Khan Tarakai include visibly hermaphroditic figurines. There is a need to understand the notions of the feminine, masculine, neuter, and other forms of gender and sexual identities. These will have ramifications for understanding the ideas of conjugality, family, community, society and even polity and spirituality.
CONCLUSION
Human civilisations were built by men as well as women, however, history writing has a huge male-bias. Women were confined to questions of status and position that were largely evaluated in terms of their roles in the domestic sphere.
Their treatment as wives and widows became a central focus of most research alongside their place in ritual or religious context. This made them peripheral to mainstream history. This was questioned by various scholars from time to time and led to the development of gendered understanding of history. Focusing attention on women’s history helps to rectify the method which sees women as a monolithic homogeneous category. Writing gender history has helped in building an image of the past that is wholesome and nuanced.