Coastal and marine ecosystems are found in 123 countries around the world. The marine habitats include a wide range of ecosystems such as the shallow coral reef ecosystem, mesophotic reef ecosystem, soft sediment ocean floor ecosystem to coastal estuarine ecosystem, saline wetland ecosystem, mangrove ecosystem, gulf waters, creeks, tidal flats, deltaic plains etc.
Marine biodiversity includes these wide ranges of ecosystems from coastal areas to the deep sea. Being one of the 17 Mega-diverse countries, India represents 4 hotspots among the 32 biodiversity hotspots of the world. The geographical location of India between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is among the most important reasons for the enormous biological diversity and supports them in accordance with conductive climatic factors.
MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
Mangrove ecosystems occur mostly in the inter-tidal region between mean sea level to the highest spring tide in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. India’s mangrove cover is sporadic with a total area covering 4,627.63 sq. km. among 12 maritime states and union territories. A total of 125 species including 39 species of true mangroves and 86 species of associates are recorded in India. The highest species diversity is recorded from Odisha with a total of 101 species while Gujarat harbors 40 species. Mangrove habitats serve as one of the best nursery grounds for the development and aggregation of several faunal species. A total of 3111 species of mangrove associated fauna were recorded from India.
SEAWEED ECOSYSTEMS
Seaweeds are the marine macro algae under 3 phyla or divisions, namely, Brown Algae i.e., Phaeophyta, Red Algae i.e.,Rhodophyta and Green Algae i.e., Chlorophyta. Most of the importance of seaweed is derived from its delicacy and being adopted by coastal dwellers in several counties for consumption as food. They are a good source of nutrients and are used as fertilizer for agricultural purposes. Seaweeds contain plenty of minerals which can be extracted to meet the necessary requirements. The therapeutic applications of seaweeds cover a wide range where these are used for the purposes of treatment.
A total of 936 species of marine algae were recorded from Indian coastal and marine environments. This ecosystem provides massive infrastructure for many associated faunal communities but the studies do not span all of the coastal regions.
SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEMS
Seagrasses are commonly known as the flowering group of plants. A total of 14 species of seagrasses are reported in Indian waters. The ecological contribution of this ecosystem towards niche maintenance is remarkable in coastal waters situated at the continental shelf region. It increases the complexity of life and provides a healthy place to live for a wide range of species. It provides the basic strata for all the dwelling organisms as a nursery ground for reproduction, pre and post larval settlement as well as protection for those animals against oceanic currents and sedimentation. A total of 1059 species of animals belonging to 18 groups were reported from the seagrass ecosystems in the Indian seas which harbor 5.18 per cent of India’s marine fauna.
CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS
Coral reefs are among the most ecologically fragile environments of the globe. These biological organisms are abundant and very common in marine environments, and have been known to natural historians for millennia. Despite covering less than 0.2 per cent of the total area of oceans, coral reefs are noted for some of the highest levels of biodiversity on Earth and house 25 per cent of all marine creatures. It has been estimated that about 1-9 million species live on coral reefs.
The coral reef ecosystem contributes various services such as biological, ecological, physiological services and economic services for the sustainable development as well as protection of the marine and coastal habitats. India represents a total 57.10 sq. km. of coral cover. The major reef areas of India are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Lakshadweep and Gujarat while small patches of reef have also been recorded from Gopalpur-on-Sea, Kerala, Netrani Island of Karnataka, Goa and Malvan coast. Most of the marine faunal communities are recorded from the reef habitats of India.
FAUNAL DIVERSITY
The exploration of marine biodiversity in India was initiated long back and it is perhaps the first among the Asian countries. The studies on the marine faunal communities of India were documented from the shallow regions of the ocean floor while ample areas of the seas are to be explored for the documentation of several unknown faunal communities. A total of 20,444 species of fauna have been recorded from India’s marine and coastal waters. India contributes to 6.43 per cent of global marine biodiversity and 7.01 per cent of global faunal diversity.
PROTECTED MARINE FAUNA
A total of 733 areas (103 National Parks, 532 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 26 Community Reserves and 67 Conservation Reserves) have been declared as protected areas in India. 18 biosphere reserves have also been declared to protect entire ecosystems. According to a series of notifications issued under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, so far 1180 species are listed as protected marine animals of India.
Fig: Numbers of Protected Marine Species in India
THREATS TO COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
NATURAL: Storms and wave energies may be seen as typhoons, quakes, and tsunamis. These are natural catastrophic events which may lead to the destruction of marine biodiversity.
ANTHROPOGENIC: Sedimentation from developmental activities, eutrophication from sewage and agriculture, physical impact of maritime activities, dredging, destructive fishing practices, pollution from industrial sources, climate change, introduction of invasive species, UV- radiation, carbonate mineral saturation, habitat alteration, unregulated tourism, chemical stress, oil spills, anchoring and bacterial effects.
LEGISLATION
WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972: Provides protection to a wide number of animals against collection.
ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986: Prohibits use of any parts of selected marine faunal communities against construction and other purposes.
COASTAL REGULATION ZONE NOTIFICATION, 1991: Regulates onshore development activities to protect coastal environments.
CITES: Restricts the trade of threatened marine fauna in order to avoid unsustainable utilization under Appendix II.
UNCLOS, MARPOL, and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants: Regulation of marine pollution.
Recent Posts
The United Nations has shaped so much of global co-operation and regulation that we wouldn’t recognise our world today without the UN’s pervasive role in it. So many small details of our lives – such as postage and copyright laws – are subject to international co-operation nurtured by the UN.
In its 75th year, however, the UN is in a difficult moment as the world faces climate crisis, a global pandemic, great power competition, trade wars, economic depression and a wider breakdown in international co-operation.
Still, the UN has faced tough times before – over many decades during the Cold War, the Security Council was crippled by deep tensions between the US and the Soviet Union. The UN is not as sidelined or divided today as it was then. However, as the relationship between China and the US sours, the achievements of global co-operation are being eroded.
The way in which people speak about the UN often implies a level of coherence and bureaucratic independence that the UN rarely possesses. A failure of the UN is normally better understood as a failure of international co-operation.
We see this recently in the UN’s inability to deal with crises from the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar, to civil conflict in Syria, and the failure of the Security Council to adopt a COVID-19 resolution calling for ceasefires in conflict zones and a co-operative international response to the pandemic.
The UN administration is not primarily to blame for these failures; rather, the problem is the great powers – in the case of COVID-19, China and the US – refusing to co-operate.
Where states fail to agree, the UN is powerless to act.
Marking the 75th anniversary of the official formation of the UN, when 50 founding nations signed the UN Charter on June 26, 1945, we look at some of its key triumphs and resounding failures.
Five successes
1. Peacekeeping
The United Nations was created with the goal of being a collective security organisation. The UN Charter establishes that the use of force is only lawful either in self-defence or if authorised by the UN Security Council. The Security Council’s five permanent members, being China, US, UK, Russia and France, can veto any such resolution.
The UN’s consistent role in seeking to manage conflict is one of its greatest successes.
A key component of this role is peacekeeping. The UN under its second secretary-general, the Swedish statesman Dag Hammarskjöld – who was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace prize after he died in a suspicious plane crash – created the concept of peacekeeping. Hammarskjöld was responding to the 1956 Suez Crisis, in which the US opposed the invasion of Egypt by its allies Israel, France and the UK.
UN peacekeeping missions involve the use of impartial and armed UN forces, drawn from member states, to stabilise fragile situations. “The essence of peacekeeping is the use of soldiers as a catalyst for peace rather than as the instruments of war,” said then UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, when the forces won the 1988 Nobel Peace Prize following missions in conflict zones in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, Central America and Europe.
However, peacekeeping also counts among the UN’s major failures.
2. Law of the Sea
Negotiated between 1973 and 1982, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) set up the current international law of the seas. It defines states’ rights and creates concepts such as exclusive economic zones, as well as procedures for the settling of disputes, new arrangements for governing deep sea bed mining, and importantly, new provisions for the protection of marine resources and ocean conservation.
Mostly, countries have abided by the convention. There are various disputes that China has over the East and South China Seas which present a conflict between power and law, in that although UNCLOS creates mechanisms for resolving disputes, a powerful state isn’t necessarily going to submit to those mechanisms.
Secondly, on the conservation front, although UNCLOS is a huge step forward, it has failed to adequately protect oceans that are outside any state’s control. Ocean ecosystems have been dramatically transformed through overfishing. This is an ecological catastrophe that UNCLOS has slowed, but failed to address comprehensively.
3. Decolonisation
The idea of racial equality and of a people’s right to self-determination was discussed in the wake of World War I and rejected. After World War II, however, those principles were endorsed within the UN system, and the Trusteeship Council, which monitored the process of decolonisation, was one of the initial bodies of the UN.
Although many national independence movements only won liberation through bloody conflicts, the UN has overseen a process of decolonisation that has transformed international politics. In 1945, around one third of the world’s population lived under colonial rule. Today, there are less than 2 million people living in colonies.
When it comes to the world’s First Nations, however, the UN generally has done little to address their concerns, aside from the non-binding UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples of 2007.
4. Human rights
The Human Rights Declaration of 1948 for the first time set out fundamental human rights to be universally protected, recognising that the “inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world”.
Since 1948, 10 human rights treaties have been adopted – including conventions on the rights of children and migrant workers, and against torture and discrimination based on gender and race – each monitored by its own committee of independent experts.
The language of human rights has created a new framework for thinking about the relationship between the individual, the state and the international system. Although some people would prefer that political movements focus on ‘liberation’ rather than ‘rights’, the idea of human rights has made the individual person a focus of national and international attention.
5. Free trade
Depending on your politics, you might view the World Trade Organisation as a huge success, or a huge failure.
The WTO creates a near-binding system of international trade law with a clear and efficient dispute resolution process.
The majority Australian consensus is that the WTO is a success because it has been good for Australian famers especially, through its winding back of subsidies and tariffs.
However, the WTO enabled an era of globalisation which is now politically controversial.
Recently, the US has sought to disrupt the system. In addition to the trade war with China, the Trump Administration has also refused to appoint tribunal members to the WTO’s Appellate Body, so it has crippled the dispute resolution process. Of course, the Trump Administration is not the first to take issue with China’s trade strategies, which include subsidises for ‘State Owned Enterprises’ and demands that foreign firms transfer intellectual property in exchange for market access.
The existence of the UN has created a forum where nations can discuss new problems, and climate change is one of them. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up in 1988 to assess climate science and provide policymakers with assessments and options. In 1992, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change created a permanent forum for negotiations.
However, despite an international scientific body in the IPCC, and 165 signatory nations to the climate treaty, global greenhouse gas emissions have continued to increase.
Under the Paris Agreement, even if every country meets its greenhouse gas emission targets we are still on track for ‘dangerous warming’. Yet, no major country is even on track to meet its targets; while emissions will probably decline this year as a result of COVID-19, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases will still increase.
This illustrates a core conundrum of the UN in that it opens the possibility of global cooperation, but is unable to constrain states from pursuing their narrowly conceived self-interests. Deep co-operation remains challenging.
Five failures of the UN
1. Peacekeeping
During the Bosnian War, Dutch peacekeeping forces stationed in the town of Srebrenica, declared a ‘safe area’ by the UN in 1993, failed in 1995 to stop the massacre of more than 8000 Muslim men and boys by Bosnian Serb forces. This is one of the most widely discussed examples of the failures of international peacekeeping operations.
On the massacre’s 10th anniversary, then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan wrote that the UN had “made serious errors of judgement, rooted in a philosophy of impartiality”, contributing to a mass murder that would “haunt our history forever”.
If you look at some of the other infamous failures of peacekeeping missions – in places such as Rwanda, Somalia and Angola – it is the limited powers given to peacekeeping operations that have resulted in those failures.
2. The invasion of Iraq
The invasion of Iraq by the US in 2003, which was unlawful and without Security Council authorisation, reflects the fact that the UN is has very limited capacity to constrain the actions of great powers.
The Security Council designers created the veto power so that any of the five permanent members could reject a Council resolution, so in that way it is programmed to fail when a great power really wants to do something that the international community generally condemns.
In the case of the Iraq invasion, the US didn’t veto a resolution, but rather sought authorisation that it did not get. The UN, if you go by the idea of collective security, should have responded by defending Iraq against this unlawful use of force.
The invasion proved a humanitarian disaster with the loss of more than 400,000 lives, and many believe that it led to the emergence of the terrorist Islamic State.
3. Refugee crises
The UN brokered the 1951 Refugee Convention to address the plight of people displaced in Europe due to World War II; years later, the 1967 Protocol removed time and geographical restrictions so that the Convention can now apply universally (although many countries in Asia have refused to sign it, owing in part to its Eurocentric origins).
Despite these treaties, and the work of the UN High Commission for Refugees, there is somewhere between 30 and 40 million refugees, many of them, such as many Palestinians, living for decades outside their homelands. This is in addition to more than 40 million people displaced within their own countries.
While for a long time refugee numbers were reducing, in recent years, particularly driven by the Syrian conflict, there have been increases in the number of people being displaced.
During the COVID-19 crisis, boatloads of Rohingya refugees were turned away by port after port. This tragedy has echoes of pre-World War II when ships of Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi Germany were refused entry by multiple countries.
And as a catastrophe of a different kind looms, there is no international framework in place for responding to people who will be displaced by rising seas and other effects of climate change.
4. Conflicts without end
Across the world, there is a shopping list of unresolved civil conflicts and disputed territories.
Palestine and Kashmir are two of the longest-running failures of the UN to resolve disputed lands. More recent, ongoing conflicts include the civil wars in Syria and Yemen.
The common denominator of unresolved conflicts is either division among the great powers, or a lack of international interest due to the geopolitical stakes not being sufficiently high. For instance, the inaction during the Rwandan civil war in the 1990s was not due to a division among great powers, but rather a lack of political will to engage.
In Syria, by contrast, Russia and the US have opposing interests and back opposing sides: Russia backs the government of the Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad, whereas the US does not.
5. Acting like it’s 1945
The UN is increasingly out of step with the reality of geopolitics today.
The permanent members of the Security Council reflect the division of power internationally at the end of World War II. The continuing exclusion of Germany, Japan, and rising powers such as India and Indonesia, reflects the failure to reflect the changing balance of power.
Also, bodies such as the IMF and the World Bank, which are part of the UN system, continue to be dominated by the West. In response, China has created potential rival institutions such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank.
Western domination of UN institutions undermines their credibility. However, a more fundamental problem is that institutions designed in 1945 are a poor fit with the systemic global challenges – of which climate change is foremost – that we face today.