Biodiversity Profile Of India:-
India, a megadiverse country with only 2.4% of the world’s land area, accounts for 7-8% of all recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals
It is situated at the tri-junction of the Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan and Palaearctic realms, all of which support rich biodiversity.
Being one of the 17 identified megadiverse countries, India has 10 biogeographic zones and is home to 8.58% of the mammalian species documented so far, with the corresponding figures for avian species being 13.66%, for reptiles 7.91%, for amphibians 4.66%, for fishes 11.72% and for plants 11.80%
Four of the 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots, namely the Himalaya, Indo-Burma, the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka and Sundaland, are represented in India
Bio-geographic classification and biodiversity characterization:-
India is amongst the few countries that have developed a bio-geographic classification based on which conservation planning has been taken up. This has been done to ensure
that different bio-geographic zones are represented in area-based conservation approaches at the landscape level.
This classification uses four levels of planning units: the biogeographic zone, the biotic province, the land region and the biome.
The Biogeographic Zone:-
Large distinctive units of similar ecology, biome representation, community and species, e.g., The Himalaya, The Western Ghats.
The biotic province:-
Secondary units within a zone, giving weight to particular communities separated by dispersal barriers or gradual change in environmental factors,e.g., North-west and West Himalaya either side of the Sutlej River.
The Land Region:-
A tertiary set of units within a province, indicating different landforms, e.g., Aravalli Mountains and Malwa Plateau in Gujarat-Rajwara Province.
The Biome:-
A biome is an ecological unit, not a bio-geographic unit, such as swamp/wetland or temperate broad leaved forest.
Biodiversity hotspots:-
The idea of hotspots was first mooted in 1988 by ecologist Norman Myers, who defined a hotspot as an area of exceptional plant, animal and microbe wealth that is under threat. The key criteria for determining a hotspot are endemism (the presence of species found nowhere else on earth) and degree of threat.
Out of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots, four are present in India.
1)THE HIMALAYA –
Western and Eastern Himalaya form part of Himalayan global biodiversity hotspot.
The sudden rise of the Himalayan mountains from less than 500 metres to more than 8,000 metres results in a diversity of ecosystems, from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broad-leaf forests along the foothills to temperate broad-leaf forests in the middle elevations, mixed conifer and conifer forests in the higher hills, and alpine meadows 2 above the tree line.
This enormous mountain range, which extends over nearly 750,000 km , lies in two separate regions of India, namely the Eastern Himalaya and the Western Himalaya. Charismatic large mammals such as the tiger and elephant are found in the foothills and Terai region. The Snow leopard, Musk deer, Himalayan tahr, Blue sheep, Black bear, Chir pheasant, Himalayan monal and Western tragopan are some of the characteristic fauna of the mountains. Of the estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalaya hotspot, 71 genera and approximately 3160 species are endemic.
The Eastern Himalayan region is exceptionally rich in diversity and endemism and hence is of great significance. The Eastern Himalaya on the whole has an estimated 9000 plant species, out of which 3500 (39%) are endemic. In the Indian portion of the Eastern Himalaya there occur 5800 plant species, approximately 2000 (36%) of which are endemic. The area is also rich in wild relatives of plants of economic significance, for example, rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane. The region is also a rich centre of avian diversity-more than 60% of the bird species found in India have been recorded in the North-east. The region also harbours 35 endemic reptilian species including two genera of lizards and two turtle species. Out of 341 Indian amphibian species recorded so far, at least 68 species are known to occur in the North-east, 20 of which are endemic
Tragapon
Snow leopard
Himalyan Monal-
2)THE WESTERN GHATS-
Part of Western Ghats-SriLanka global biodiversity hotspot.
The Western Ghats are part of the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka global hotspot, running roughly in a North-south direction for about 1500 kilometres parallel to the coast bordering the Arabian Sea. The importance of the Western Ghats in terms of their biodiversity can be seen from the known inventory of their plant and animal groups and the levels of endemism in these taxa. Western Ghats harbour 7388 species of flowering plants. Of these, 5584 species are indigenous, 377 are exotic naturalised and 1427 are cultivated or planted. Of the indigenous 5584 species, 2242 species are Indian endemics (found only in India) and 1261 are the Western Ghats endemics. Apart from the above, there are 586 taxa with subspecies and variety status, bringing total taxa in the Western Ghats to 7974.
The Western Ghats region harbours the largest global populations of the Asian elephant and possibly of other mammals such as the tiger, dhole and gaur. The Western Ghats also support a number of wild relatives of cultivated plants, including pepper, cardamom, mango, jackfruit and sandal.
Thirty nine sites in the Western Ghats in the States of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra were inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2012, considering their outstanding universal value and high levels of endemism.
3)NORTH-EAST-
Part of Indo-Burma global biodiversity hotspot.
Some parts of the North-eastern region of India, excluding the Himalayan region, are contiguous with the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, centred on the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and comprising Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and parts of Southern China.
The topography of the hotspot is complex and is characterised by a series of North-south mountain ranges that descend from the Himalayan chain and its South-eastern
extensions.
Indo-Burma probably supports the highest diversity of freshwater turtle in the world. The hot spot also has a remarkable freshwater fish fauna, with 1262 documented species, accounting for about 10% of the world total, including 566 endemics
4)NICOBAR ISLANDS-
Part of the Sundaland global biodiversity hotspot.
The Nicobar Islands are part of the Sundaland hotspot, which includes a small portion of Southern Thailand;nearly all of Malaysia; Singapore, at the tip of the Malay Peninsula; all of Brunei Darussalam; and all of the western half of the mega-diverse country of Indonesia,including Kalimantan.
These islands are fringed by one of the most spectacular reefs of the Indian Ocean region and are considered to be globally significant.
The Nicobar Islands are characterised by an absence of large mammals and the presence of a significant number of endemics, such as Nicobar tree shrew (Tupaia nicobarica), among the island’s vertebrates.
The only primate, the Nicobar Crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), occurs in the Southern group of the Nicobar Islands.
Importance of biodiversity and its implications for human well-being:-
Biodiversity underpins the form and function of ecosystems, which are of high value due to the life-supporting services they provide that meet human needs, both material and non-material.
They are provisioning services, such as supplying of fuel and fodder, and regulating services, such as carbon sequestration and prevention of soil erosion. Moreover, biodiversity has non-use or existence value.
In the Indian context especially, a range of socio-cultural values are derived from biodiversity that are philosophical, cultural and religious. Biodiversity and ecosystem diversity are reflected in the cultural and religious diversity of India through the varied values attached to biodiversity components and landscapes. India’s many traditional knowledge systems and ethno-medicinal practices are based on a close understanding of and dependence on biodiversity. The cultural or religious importance of species and designation of sacred areas are well-known in India.
Marine biodiversity:-
India’s coastal and marine areas hold many biological treasures. Dense mangrove forest of Sunderbans, the world’s largest congregations of nesting turtles in Odisha, beautiful seagrass beds in Palk Bay, dolphins and dugongs in the Gulf of Mannar, majestic whale sharks in the Gulf of Kachchh and some of the world’s most beautiful coral reefs are just a few examples of the treasures of India’s coastal and marine biodiversity
Endemism:-
Forests of India:-
The forests in India are spread over an area of 2 692,027 km , covering 21.05% of the geographical area of the country.
There are 16 major forest types and 251 sub-types
The forest cover of the country has been classified on the basis of the tree canopy density into pre-defined classes: Very Dense Forest (VDF), Moderately Dense Forest
(MDF) and Open Forest (OF).
Forest cover percentage-
a) VDF – 2.54
b) MDF -9.76
c) OF – 8.75
Wetlands of India
India is bestowed with a rich diversity of wetlands, ranging from high altitude lakes of the Himalayas, floodplains and marshes of the Gangetic – Bramhaputra alluvial plains, saline flats of Green Indian Desert to extensive mangroves marshes bordering the country’s East and West coastline.
Roughly equal to 4.6% of India’s land area is wetland.
India is a signatory to Ramsar Convention and is committed to ‘wise use’ of all wetlands in her territory. As on date, 26 sites have been designated as Wetlands of International importance under the Convention.
Important Wetlands of India:-
- Ashtamudi Wetland – Kerala
- Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary – Uttar pradesh
- Bhoj Lake – Madhya Pradesh
- Chilika Lagoon – Odisha
- Deepor Beel – Assam
- Kolleru Lake – Andhra Pradesh
- Loktak Lake – Manipur
- Nalsarovar – Gujrat
- North Reef Island Sanctuary – Andaman & Nicobar Islands
- Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary – Tamilndau
- Pong Dam Lake – Himachal Pradesh
- Sambhar Lake – Rajasthan
- Sundarbans – West Bengal
- Tawa Reservoir – Madhya Pradesh
- Tso Moriri – Jammu & Kashmir
- Udhwa Lake (Bird Sanctuary) – Jharkhand
- Wular Lake – Jammu & Kashmir
- Wandur Marine National Park – Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Wetlands are one of the crucial natural resources. Wetlands are areas of land that are either temporarily or permanently covered by water. This means that a wetland is neither truly aquatic nor terrestrial; it is possible that wetlands can be both at the same time depending on seasonal variability. Thus, wetlands exhibit enormous diversity according to their genesis, geographical location, water regime and chemistry, dominant plants and soil or sediment characteristics.
Because of their transitional nature, the boundaries of wetlands are often difficult to define. Wetlands do, however, share a few attributes common to all forms. Of these, hydrological structure (the dynamics of water supply, throughput, storage and loss) is most fundamental to the nature of a wetland system. It is the presence of water for a significant period of time, which is principally responsible for the development of a wetland
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment estimates conservatively that wetlands cover seven percent of the earth’s surface and deliver 45% of the world’s natural productivity and ecosystem services of which the benefits are estimated at $20 trillion a year
Provisioning services: The resources or products provided by ecosystems, such as food, raw materials (wood), genetic resources, medicinal resources, ornamental resources (skin, shells, flowers).
Regulating services: Ecosystems maintain the essential ecological processes and life support systems, like gas and climate regulation, water supply and regulation, waste treatment, pollination, etc.
Cultural and Amenity services: Ecosystems are a source of inspiration to human culture and education throughout recreation, cultural, artistic, spiritual and historic information, science and education.
Supporting services: Ecosystems provide habitat for flora and fauna in order to maintain biological and genetic diversity.
Mangroves, corals and seagrasses:-
India has a long coastline of about 7,517 km in length- 2 consisting of 2,383 km of extensive coral reef beds.
The coral reef beds in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are inhabited by several rare and threatened species such as the dugong, the Hawksbill turtle and Giant clams, which indicate the health of these ecosystems.
A total of 478 species of corals belonging to 89 genera have so far been recorded from India, forming 60% of the known hermatypic genera of the world.
The mangrove cover of India (2.69% of the global mangrove area and 8% of Asia’s mangroves) is home to umbrella species such as the tiger as well as many threatened species such as the River terrapin, Gangetic river dolphin, Estuarine crocodile and Fishing cat.
*Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat. Species conservation can be subjective because it is hard to determine the status of many species.
About 59% of this cover is on the East coast, along the Bay of Bengal, 28% on the West coast, bordering the Arabian Sea, and 13% on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The largest mangrove habitat is found in the Sundarbans, West Bengal. It is the single largest block 2 (>10,000 km ) of tidal halophytic mangroves in the world.
Seagrasses are submerged aquatic vegetation specialised to live in marine environments.They are acting as the carbon sink in the coastal environment by sequestering
12% of the carbon fixed in the global oceans.
In India, extensive seagrass meadows are reported from Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kachchh, Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar group of islands.
Marine protected area network in India:-
India has a vast coastline of 7517 km, of which 5423 km is in peninsular India and 2094 km in the Andaman, Nicobar 2 and Lakshadweep Islands, with an exclusive economic zone of 2.02 million km . This coastline also supports a huge human population, which is dependent on the rich coastal and marine resources. It is estimated that nearly 250 million
people live within a swath 50 km wide along the coastline of India.
Therefore, the ecological services of the marine and coastal ecosystems of India play a vital role in India’s economic growth and in ensuring human well-being. The MPA network in India has been used as a tool to manage natural marine resources for biodiversity conservation and for the well-being of people dependent on these resources. India has designated four legal categories of PAs, National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves. Scientific monitoring and traditional observations confirm that depleted natural marine resources are getting restored and/or pristine ecological conditions have been sustained in well managed MPAs.
There are 23 MPAs present in peninsular India and more than 100 MPAs in the country’s islands. Of the 23 MPAs in the peninsula, Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Sundarbans National Park, Gulf of Kachchh National Park, Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Chilika Wildlife Sanctuary have unique marine biodiversity and provide a range of ecological services to the local communities. These 23 MPAs cover an area of about 6158 km , which is 3.85% of the total area covered under the entire PA network of India 2 or less than 0.2% of the total land area of India. The total area of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is 4947 km , of 2 which 1510 km is protected under the provisions of India’s Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. There are 105 PAs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, of which about 100 include marine areas. These MPAs cover more than 30% of the terrestrial area of the islands and protect more than 40% of the coastal habitat. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park and Rani Jhansi Marine National Park are important MPAs here. In the Lakshadweep group of islands, Pitti Island (0.012 km ) is the only island having the status of an MPA.
Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs):-
Biosphere Reserves (BRs):-
National Biosphere Reserve Programme in 1986 with the primary aim of conservation of an entire range of living resources and their ecological foundations, along with sustainable use of natural resources and improvement of the livelihoods of local inhabitants. This programme also had the objective of ensuring community participation for ffective management of biodiversity resources and integration of traditional knowledge and scientific research for conservation, education and training as a part of the overall management of BRs. Considering the diversity of ecosystems and recognising the importance of BRs in ensuring long-term conservation and sustainable use of India’s
representative and diverse biological diversity, so far 18 BRs have been notified by the GoI. Globally, the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) has designated a total of
621 BRs, of which 9 are in India. These are the Achanakmar-Amarkantak, Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar, Nanda Devi, Sundarban, Simlipal, Pachmarhi, Nokrek and Great Nicobar BR.
Important Bird Areas (IBAs)
Birds are good indicators of ecosystem health. The IBA programme of BirdLife International aims to identify, monitor and protect a global network of IBAs for conservation of the world’s birds and other biodiversity. The IBAs are conservation areas of international significance for conservation of birds at the global, regional or sub-regional level. According to BirdLife International, designation of IBAs is based on standardised criteria, namely (i) hold significant numbers of one or more globally threatened bird species, (ii) be one of a set of sites that together hold a suite of restricted-range species or biome-restricted.(iii) have exceptionally large numbers of
migratory or congregatory birds.
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS; www.bnhs.org) and BirdLife International have identified 465 IBAs in India
Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs)
KBAs are nationally identified sites of global significance. In India, the identification of KBAs in the Western Ghats was initiated in 2003.KBAs comprise an ‘umbrella’ which includes globally important sites for different taxa and realms: IBAs, Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs), Important Sites for Freshwater/Marine Biodiversity; and Alliance
for Zero Extinction (AZE) sites.
Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE)The AZE (www.zeroextinction.org) is a global alliance, which identifies threatened species (CR and EN), based on the global IUCN Red Listing, occurring in a single location, as the highest priority in initiating on-the ground conservation action.
Currently there are 19 species recognized by the AZE in India, The Zoo Outreach Organization (ZOO; www.zooreach.org) and the Indian Alliance for Zero Extinction (In AZE; www.zooreach.org/indianaze/ indianaze.html) have identified a further 40 species and sites based on the recent assessments of freshwater fish and aquatic plants.
Community Conservation Areas (CCAs)
CCAs can be defined as ‘natural ecosystems (forest/marine/wetlands/grasslands/others), including those with minimum to substantial human influence, containing significant wildlife and biodiversity values, being conserved by communities for cultural, religious, livelihood, or political purposes, using customary laws or other effective means’.
A total of 141 CCAs covering a total area of ca. 157,046 ha have been identified for conservation measures.
Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs)
India has one of the richest and oldest medicinal plant cultures of the world. The so far estimated number of 6560 species of medicinal plants of India are a great bio-cultural resource Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health and Traditions.
The uniqueness of the Indian medical heritage draws from two streams of knowledge, folk and codified stream, which are coexisting living traditions that have historically
enjoyed a symbiotic relationship. India is a global leader in in-situ conservation of medicinal plants having established the largest in-situ conservation network for medicinal plants in the tropical world.
So far, 110 MPCAs, each of an average size of 200 ha, have been set up across 13 States of India.
Flagship Species of India
Tiger:-
The Tiger Panthera tigris is an umbrella species for conservation of the biota of a majority of the eco-regions in Asia. Its role as a top predator is vital in regulating and maintaining ecological processes and systems. India is home to over 50% of the world’s wild tigers in spite of having a growing human population of over a billion.
Major landscape complexes that inhabit tiger:-
1)Shiva-Gangetic Plain Landscape
2)Central Indian Landscape Complex and Eastern Ghats Landscape
3)Western Ghats Landscape
4)North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plans
Elephant:-
The Elephant (Elephas maximus) has enjoyed a unique association with the people of India since ancient times and is worshiped in Hindu and Buddhist cultures. It occurs in the central and Southern Western Ghats, North-east India, Eastern India and Northern India and in some parts of Southern peninsular India.
It is included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna(CITES).
In 1992 GoI launched Project Elephant, a flagship conservation project that aims to conserve the elephant and its habitat across 10 major landscapes (designated as Project
Elephant Ranges), mitigate elephant – human conflict, and protect the animal from poaching for ivory.
Asiatic Wild ass:-
The Asiatic Wild ass Equus hemionus khur is restricted to the Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat and its surrounding areas. The population of this sub-species has been on the increase since the 1990s.
Gharial :-
Gharial is Critically Endangered (IUCN), and listed in Schedule I Wildlife Protection Act (WPA, 1972). About 1300 animals are estimated to be left in the wild, of which only about 200 are breeding adults. The largest remaining populations are found in just four locations in India, along the Son, Katerniaghat, Girwa and Chambal rivers.
Irrawaddy dolphin:-
Irrawaddy dolphin is found in Chilika Lake and the Sundarbans, these dolphins have suffered a rapid decline in their population mainly due to poaching and accidental catches in gill nets. Conservation work carried out by the Chilika Development Authority (CDA) has resulted in an increasing trend in the population of the Irrawaddy dolphin, with the
numbers increasing from 70 in 2003 to 145 in 2012.
Freshwater turtles:-
Project Kachuga, an initiative undertaken by the Madras Crocodile Bank Trust in collaboration with Turtle Survival Alliance, has been launched for conservation of freshwater turtles in India. Five turtle priority areas have been identified for development and implementation of effective conservation plans under this programme.
Dugong:-
Listed as Vulnerable (IUCN 2013, Figure 1.17) and protected under Schedule I of the WPA, 1972, dugong occurs in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kachchh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The MoEF, under the species recovery component of the IDWH scheme, aims at increasing Dugong numbers and preventing degradation of the habitat of the species.
Myristica swamps:-
Myristica swamps are a type of freshwater swamp forest predominantly composed of species of Myristica, the most primitive of the flowering plants on earth. These are found in two localities in India, the Uttara Kannada district of the State of Karnataka and in the Southern parts of the State of Kerala.
Myristica swamps are ‘live museums’ of ancient tree species and the home of proto-angiosperms
Cycads:-
Cycads are the remnants of the most ancient seed plants. These plants date to the late Carboniferous period (300-325 million years ago). They are flagship species for conservation biology due to their unusual life histories, restricted distribution in special habitats and the globally threatened status of many species
Cycads are used extensively for medicinal and other subsistence purposes. Cycads in India are now receiving much-needed attention for conservation through both ex situ and in situ measures.
Rhododendron:-
It is a ‘keystone element’ in the Himalayan context.The Eastern Himalayan region is particularly rich, being represented by 75 species. The hills of North-eastern India account for about 10 species, of which six are endemic.
As many as 46 Rhododendron species have been classified as rare or threatened in the Eastern Himalaya of India.
The State Government of Sikkim has specially declared two PAs as Rhododendron Sanctuaries, Shingba and Barsey. Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary, Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary and Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary are the other PAs in Sikkim that are known for Rhododendron conservation.
Pitcher plant:-
It is rare, classified globally as endangered and included in Appendix I of CITES and the Negative List of Exports of the GoI.
The plant is endemic to the State of Meghalaya and is found at altitudes of approximately 1000-1500 m in the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo hills .
Citrus:-
India is regarded as the home and one of the centres of origin of Citrus due to the presence of a vast genetic diversity of important Citrus species (family Rutaceae).
Seven Indian Citrus species are categorized as endangered by the IUCN. An initiative was undertaken by NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources0in 1981 to protect Citrus germplasm in the wild by establishing the Citrus Gene Sanctuary, covering an area of approximately 10,266 ha, located in the buffer zone of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya, with support from the MoEF, under the Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme of the United Nations
Orchids:-
Orchids are a charismatic group that form 9% of India’s flora and are the largest family among higher plants in India.The Himalayan region is their main home, and others are
scattered in the Eastern and Western Ghats.
Orchid diversity in India is high, comprising terrestrial, epiphytic and saprophytic orchids. In general, terrestrial orchids are more common in western India, epiphytic orchids in North-eastern India and small-flowered orchids in the Western Ghats.
Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, at Arunachal Pradesh, with more than 600 species, is the orchid paradise of the country. Agastyamalai Hills, in southern Kerala, home to at least 150 endemics species.
Threat To biodiversity:-
National Biodiversity Targets:-
- By 2020, a significant proportion of the country’s population, especially the youth, is aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably.
- By 2020, values of biodiversity are integrated in national and state planning processes, development programmes and poverty alleviation strategies.
- Strategies for reducing rate of degradation, fragmentation and loss of all natural habitats are finalized and actions put in place by 2020 for environmental amelioration and human well-being
- By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and strategies to manage them developed so that populations of prioritized invasive alien species are managed.
- By 2020, measures are adopted for sustainable management of agriculture, forestry and fisheries.
- Ecologically representative areas under terrestrial and inland water, and also coastal and marine zones, especially those of particular importance for species, biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved effectively and equitably, based on protected area designation and management and other areabased conservation measures and are integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes, covering over 20% of the geographic area of the country by 2020 .
- By 2020, genetic diversity of cultivated plants, farm livestock, and their wild relatives, including other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species, is maintained, and strategies have been developed and implemented for minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity.
- By 2020, ecosystem services, especially those relating to water,human health, livelihoods and well-being, are enumerated and measures to safeguard them are identified, taking into account the needs of women and local communities, particularly the poor and vulnerable sections.
- By 2015, Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization as per the Nagoya Protocol are operational, consistent with national legislations.
- By 2020, an effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity action plan is made operational at different levels of governance
- By 2020, national initiatives using communities’ traditional knowledge relating to biodiversity are strengthened, with the view to protecting this knowledge in accordance with national legislations and international obligations
- By 2020, opportunities to increase the availability of financial, human and technical resources to facilitate effective implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the national targets are identified and the Strategy for Resource Mobilization is adopted.
Green India Mission (GIM):-
GIM is one of the eight missions under the NAPCC. The objectives of the Mission include increased forest/tree cover on 5 m ha of forest/non- forest lands and improved quality of forest cover on another 5 m ha of non-forest/ forest lands.
Invasive Species:-
India has an estimated 18,000 plants, 30 mammals, 4 birds, 300 freshwater fishes and 1100 arthropods that are invasive.Among the major threats faced by native plant and animal species (and their habitats), the one posed by the Invasive Alien Species, is considered second only to habitat loss. Invasive Alien Species are species whose introduction and/or spread outside their natural habitats threaten biological diversity. While only a small percentage of organisms transported to new environment become invasive, their negative impacts on food security, plant, animal and human health, and economic development can be extensive and substantial. Identification, monitoring and management of all Invasive Alien Species in India is a major challenge as in other parts of the world. Addressing the problem of Invasive Alien Species is urgent because the threat is increasing due to global trade, transport, and tourism with several social, economic and environmental impacts.
Many fresh water and marine algae including species of Kappaphycus (red algae), Microcystis ( freshwater cyanobacteria), Caulerpa (seaweeds ), Cladophora (green algae), etc. causing extensive damage to the ecosystems and affecting aquatic biodiversity adversely in India have been identified.
The invasive Carijoa riisei (snowflake coral or branched pipe coral) is found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kachchh.
A recent report on the occurrence of the Spider crab Acanthonyx euryseroche, a seaweed associate along the Central West Coast of India suggests that the epidemic outburst of such population might be dangerous to native marine biodiversity in India.
Of the eight worst invasive fish species in the world, five species are present in India. For example, Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) was introduced in India as a biological control.Brown trout (Salmo trutto) and Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were introduced in streams and rivers of Himalayas for recreational as well as consumption purposes. These three highly predatory fishes eat the eggs of economically desirable fish and prey on an endanger rare indigenous fish and invertebrate species. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambucus), were introduced in Indian aquaculture but later these species spread into large parts of India and are now competing with native species in for food and habitat. African cat fish Clarias gariepinus has been identified as a highly invasive fish in the Indian freshwater ecosystem and is posing a threat to native fish as well as other aquatic animals.
Mangrove For Future:-
Conservation of indigenous livestock:-
NAPCC:-
The eight national missions, which form the core of the NAPCC represent multi-pronged long-term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in the context of climate change. These are the (1) Solar Energy Mission, (2) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency, (3) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, (4) National Water Mission, (5) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, (6) Green India Mission (7) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture and (8) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change .
Recent Posts
- Items provided through FPS
- The scale of rations
- The price of items distributed through FPS across states.
- Kyoto Protocol of 2001
- Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) as well as REDD+ mechanisms proposed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
- United Nations-mandated Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDG)
- Paris Agreement
- Carbon Neutrality
- multistrata agroforestry,
- afforestation,
- tree intercropping,
- biomass production,
- regenerative agriculture,
- conservation agriculture,
- farmland restoration,
- silvopasture,
- tropical-staple tree,
- intercropping,
- bamboo and indigenous tree–based land management.
- Floods
- Cyclones
- Tornadoes and hurricanes (cyclones)
- Hailstorms
- Cloudburst
- Heat wave and cold wave
- Snow avalanches
- Droughts
- Sea erosion
- Thunder/ lightning
- Landslides and mudflows
- Earthquakes
- Large fires
- Dam failures and dam bursts
- Mine fires
- Epidemics
- Pest attacks
- Cattle epidemics
- Food poisoning
- Chemical and Industrial disasters
- Nuclear
- Forest fires
- Urban fires
- Mine flooding
- Oil Spill
- Major building collapse
- Serial bomb blasts
- Festival related disasters
- Electrical disasters and fires
- Air, road, and rail accidents
- Boat capsizing
- Village fire
- Coastal States, particularly on the East Coast and Gujarat are vulnerable to cyclones.
- 4 crore hectare landmass is vulnerable to floods
- 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to droughts
- 55 per cent of total area is in seismic zones III- V, hence vulnerable to earthquakes
- Sub- Himalayan sector and Western Ghats are vulnerable to landslides.
- Mainstreaming of Disaster Risk Reduction in Developmental Strategy-Prevention and mitigation contribute to lasting improvement in safety and should beintegrated in the disaster management. The Government of India has adopted mitigation and prevention as essential components of their development strategy.
- Mainstreaming of National Plan and its Sub-Plan
- National Disaster Mitigation Fund
- National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (NERMP)
- National Building Code (NBC):- Earthquake resistant buildings
- National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP)
- Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP)-The objective of the project is to assist GoI in building the national capacity for implementation of a comprehensive coastal management approach in the country and piloting the integrated coastal zone management approach in states of Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal.
- National Flood Risk Mitigation Project (NFRMP)
- National Project for Integrated Drought Monitoring & Management
- National Vector Borne Diseases Control Programme (NVBDCP)- key programme
for prevention/control of outbreaks/epidemics of malaria, dengue, chikungunya etc., vaccines administered to reduce the morbidity and mortality due to diseases like measles, diphtheria, pertussis, poliomyelitis etc. Two key measures to prevent/control epidemics of water-borne diseases like cholera, viral hepatitis etc. include making available safe water and ensuring personal and domestic hygienic practices are adopted. - Training
- Education
- Research
- Awareness
- Hyogo Framework of Action- The Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) 2005-2015 was adopted to work globally towards sustainable reduction of disaster losses in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries.
- United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)-In order to build the resilience of nations and communities to disasters through the implementation of the HFA , the UNISDR strives to catalyze, facilitate and mobilise the
commitment and resources of national, regional and international stakeholders of the ISDR
system. - United Nation Disaster Management Team (UNDMT) –
- To ensure a prompt, effective and concerted country-level support to a governmental
response in the event of a disaster, at the central, state and sub-state levels, - To coordinate UN assistance to the government with respect to long term recovery, disaster mitigation and preparedness.
- To coordinate all disaster-related activities, technical advice and material assistance provided by UN agencies, as well as to take steps for optimal utilisation of resources by UN agencies.
- To ensure a prompt, effective and concerted country-level support to a governmental
- Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR):-
- GFDRR was set up in September 2006 jointly by the World Bank, donor partners (21countries and four international organisations), and key stakeholders of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR). It is a long-term global partnership under the ISDR system established to develop and implement the HFA through a coordinated programme for reversing the trend in disaster losses by 2015.
- Its mission is to mainstream disaster reduction and climate change adaptation in a country’s development strategies to reduce vulnerability to natural hazards.
- ASEAN Region Forum (ARF)
- Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC)
- SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC)
- Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER):-The Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER) is a regional training programme initiated in 1998 by the United States Agency for International Development’s, Office of U.S Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) to strengthen disaster response capacities in Asia.
- Policy guidelines at the macro level that would inform and guide the preparation and
implementation of disaster management and development plans across sectors - Building in a culture of preparedness and mitigation
- Operational guidelines of integrating disaster management practices into development, and
specific developmental schemes for prevention and mitigation of disasters - Having robust early warning systems coupled with effective response plans at district, state
and national levels - Building capacity of all stakeholders
- Involving the community, NGOs, CSOs and the media at all stages of DM
- Addressing gender issues in disaster management planning and developing a strategy for
inclusive approach addressing the disadvantaged sections of the society towards disaster risk reduction. - Addressing climate risk management through adaptation and mitigation
- Micro disaster Insurance
- Flood Proofing
- Building Codes and Enforcement
- Housing Design and Finance
- Road and Infrastructure
Globally, around 80% of wastewater flows back into the ecosystem without being treated or reused, according to the United Nations.
This can pose a significant environmental and health threat.
In the absence of cost-effective, sustainable, disruptive water management solutions, about 70% of sewage is discharged untreated into India’s water bodies.
A staggering 21% of diseases are caused by contaminated water in India, according to the World Bank, and one in five children die before their fifth birthday because of poor sanitation and hygiene conditions, according to Startup India.
As we confront these public health challenges emerging out of environmental concerns, expanding the scope of public health/environmental engineering science becomes pivotal.
For India to achieve its sustainable development goals of clean water and sanitation and to address the growing demands for water consumption and preservation of both surface water bodies and groundwater resources, it is essential to find and implement innovative ways of treating wastewater.
It is in this context why the specialised cadre of public health engineers, also known as sanitation engineers or environmental engineers, is best suited to provide the growing urban and rural water supply and to manage solid waste and wastewater.
Traditionally, engineering and public health have been understood as different fields.
Currently in India, civil engineering incorporates a course or two on environmental engineering for students to learn about wastewater management as a part of their pre-service and in-service training.
Most often, civil engineers do not have adequate skills to address public health problems. And public health professionals do not have adequate engineering skills.
India aims to supply 55 litres of water per person per day by 2024 under its Jal Jeevan Mission to install functional household tap connections.
The goal of reaching every rural household with functional tap water can be achieved in a sustainable and resilient manner only if the cadre of public health engineers is expanded and strengthened.
In India, public health engineering is executed by the Public Works Department or by health officials.
This differs from international trends. To manage a wastewater treatment plant in Europe, for example, a candidate must specialise in wastewater engineering.
Furthermore, public health engineering should be developed as an interdisciplinary field. Engineers can significantly contribute to public health in defining what is possible, identifying limitations, and shaping workable solutions with a problem-solving approach.
Similarly, public health professionals can contribute to engineering through well-researched understanding of health issues, measured risks and how course correction can be initiated.
Once both meet, a public health engineer can identify a health risk, work on developing concrete solutions such as new health and safety practices or specialised equipment, in order to correct the safety concern..
There is no doubt that the majority of diseases are water-related, transmitted through consumption of contaminated water, vectors breeding in stagnated water, or lack of adequate quantity of good quality water for proper personal hygiene.
Diseases cannot be contained unless we provide good quality and adequate quantity of water. Most of the world’s diseases can be prevented by considering this.
Training our young minds towards creating sustainable water management systems would be the first step.
Currently, institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras (IIT-M) are considering initiating public health engineering as a separate discipline.
To leverage this opportunity even further, India needs to scale up in the same direction.
Consider this hypothetical situation: Rajalakshmi, from a remote Karnataka village spots a business opportunity.
She knows that flowers, discarded in the thousands by temples can be handcrafted into incense sticks.
She wants to find a market for the product and hopefully, employ some people to help her. Soon enough though, she discovers that starting a business is a herculean task for a person like her.
There is a laborious process of rules and regulations to go through, bribes to pay on the way and no actual means to transport her product to its market.
After making her first batch of agarbathis and taking it to Bengaluru by bus, she decides the venture is not easy and gives up.
On the flipside of this is a young entrepreneur in Bengaluru. Let’s call him Deepak. He wants to start an internet-based business selling sustainably made agarbathis.
He has no trouble getting investors and to mobilise supply chains. His paperwork is over in a matter of days and his business is set up quickly and ready to grow.
Never mind that the business is built on aggregation of small sellers who will not see half the profit .
Is this scenario really all that hypothetical or emblematic of how we think about entrepreneurship in India?
Between our national obsession with unicorns on one side and glorifying the person running a pakora stall for survival as an example of viable entrepreneurship on the other, is the middle ground in entrepreneurship—a space that should have seen millions of thriving small and medium businesses, but remains so sparsely occupied that you could almost miss it.
If we are to achieve meaningful economic growth in our country, we need to incorporate, in our national conversation on entrepreneurship, ways of addressing the missing middle.
Spread out across India’s small towns and cities, this is a class of entrepreneurs that have been hit by a triple wave over the last five years, buffeted first by the inadvertent fallout of demonetization, being unprepared for GST, and then by the endless pain of the covid-19 pandemic.
As we finally appear to be reaching some level of normality, now is the opportune time to identify the kind of industries that make up this layer, the opportunities they should be afforded, and the best ways to scale up their functioning in the shortest time frame.
But, why pay so much attention to these industries when we should be celebrating, as we do, our booming startup space?
It is indeed true that India has the third largest number of unicorns in the world now, adding 42 in 2021 alone. Braving all the disruptions of the pandemic, it was a year in which Indian startups raised $24.1 billion in equity investments, according to a NASSCOM-Zinnov report last year.
However, this is a story of lopsided growth.
The cities of Bengaluru, Delhi/NCR, and Mumbai together claim three-fourths of these startup deals while emerging hubs like Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, and Jaipur account for the rest.
This leap in the startup space has created 6.6 lakh direct jobs and a few million indirect jobs. Is that good enough for a country that sends 12 million fresh graduates to its workforce every year?
It doesn’t even make a dent on arguably our biggest unemployment in recent history—in April 2020 when the country shutdown to battle covid-19.
Technology-intensive start-ups are constrained in their ability to create jobs—and hybrid work models and artificial intelligence (AI) have further accelerated unemployment.
What we need to focus on, therefore, is the labour-intensive micro, small and medium enterprise (MSME). Here, we begin to get to a definitional notion of what we called the mundane middle and the problems it currently faces.
India has an estimated 63 million enterprises. But, out of 100 companies, 95 are micro enterprises—employing less than five people, four are small to medium and barely one is large.
The questions to ask are: why are Indian MSMEs failing to grow from micro to small and medium and then be spurred on to make the leap into large companies?
At the Global Alliance for Mass Entrepreneurship (GAME), we have advocated for a National Mission for Mass Entrepreneurship, the need for which is more pronounced now than ever before.
Whenever India has worked to achieve a significant economic milestone in a limited span of time, it has worked best in mission mode. Think of the Green Revolution or Operation Flood.
From across various states, there are enough examples of approaches that work to catalyse mass entrepreneurship.
The introduction of entrepreneurship mindset curriculum (EMC) in schools through alliance mode of working by a number of agencies has shown significant improvement in academic and life outcomes.
Through creative teaching methods, students are encouraged to inculcate 21st century skills like creativity, problem solving, critical thinking and leadership which are not only foundational for entrepreneurship but essential to thrive in our complex world.
Udhyam Learning Foundation has been involved with the Government of Delhi since 2018 to help young people across over 1,000 schools to develop an entrepreneurial mindset.
One pilot programme introduced the concept of ‘seed money’ and saw 41 students turn their ideas into profit-making ventures. Other programmes teach qualities like grit and resourcefulness.
If you think these are isolated examples, consider some larger data trends.
The Observer Research Foundation and The World Economic Forum released the Young India and Work: A Survey of Youth Aspirations in 2018.
When asked which type of work arrangement they prefer, 49% of the youth surveyed said they prefer a job in the public sector.
However, 38% selected self-employment as an entrepreneur as their ideal type of job. The spirit of entrepreneurship is latent and waiting to be unleashed.
The same can be said for building networks of successful women entrepreneurs—so crucial when the participation of women in the Indian economy has declined to an abysmal 20%.
The majority of India’s 63 million firms are informal —fewer than 20% are registered for GST.
Research shows that companies that start out as formal enterprises become two-three times more productive than a similar informal business.
So why do firms prefer to be informal? In most cases, it’s because of the sheer cost and difficulty of complying with the different regulations.
We have academia and non-profits working as ecosystem enablers providing insights and evidence-based models for growth. We have large private corporations and philanthropic and funding agencies ready to invest.
It should be in the scope of a National Mass Entrepreneurship Mission to bring all of them together to work in mission mode so that the gap between thought leadership and action can finally be bridged.
Heat wave is a condition of air temperature which becomes fatal to human body when exposed. Often times, it is defined based on the temperature thresholds over a region in terms of actual temperature or its departure from normal.
Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 400C or more for Plains and at least 300C or more for Hilly regions.
a) Based on Departure from Normal
Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.50C to 6.40C
Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.40C
b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature
Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 450C
Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥470C
If above criteria met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological sub-division for at least two consecutive days and it declared on the second day
It is occurring mainly during March to June and in some rare cases even in July. The peak month of the heat wave over India is May.
Heat wave generally occurs over plains of northwest India, Central, East & north Peninsular India during March to June.
It covers Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra & Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telengana.
Sometimes it occurs over Tamilnadu & Kerala also.
Heat waves adversely affect human and animal lives.
However, maximum temperatures more than 45°C observed mainly over Rajasthan and Vidarbha region in month of May.
a. Transportation / Prevalence of hot dry air over a region (There should be a region of warm dry air and appropriate flow pattern for transporting hot air over the region).
b. Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere (As the presence of moisture restricts the temperature rise).
c. The sky should be practically cloudless (To allow maximum insulation over the region).
d. Large amplitude anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
Heat waves generally develop over Northwest India and spread gradually eastwards & southwards but not westwards (since the prevailing winds during the season are westerly to northwesterly).
The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
1. Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by fever below 39*C i.e.102*F.
2. Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating.
3. Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium, seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition.
Norman Borlaug and MS Swaminathan in a wheat field in north India in March 1964
Political independence does not have much meaning without economic independence.
One of the important indicators of economic independence is self-sufficiency in food grain production.
The overall food grain scenario in India has undergone a drastic transformation in the last 75 years.
India was a food-deficit country on the eve of Independence. It had to import foodgrains to feed its people.
The situation became more acute during the 1960s. The imported food had to be sent to households within the shortest possible time.
The situation was referred to as ‘ship to mouth’.
Presently, Food Corporation of India (FCI) godowns are overflowing with food grain stocks and the Union government is unable to ensure remunerative price to the farmers for their produce.
This transformation, however, was not smooth.
In the 1960s, it was disgraceful, but unavoidable for the Prime Minister of India to go to foreign countries with a begging bowl.
To avoid such situations, the government motivated agricultural scientists to make India self-sufficient in food grain production.
As a result, high-yield varieties (HYV) were developed. The combination of seeds, water and fertiliser gave a boost to food grain production in the country which is generally referred to as the Green Revolution.
The impact of the Green Revolution, however, was confined to a few areas like Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh in the north and (unified) Andhra Pradesh in the south.
Most of the remaining areas were deficit in food grain production.
Therefore the Union government had to procure food grain from surplus states to distribute it among deficit ones.
At the time, farmers in the surplus states viewed procurement as a tax as they were prevented from selling their surplus foodgrains at high prices in the deficit states.
As production of food grains increased, there was decentralisation of procurement. State governments were permitted to procure grain to meet their requirement.
The distribution of food grains was left to the concerned state governments.
Kerala, for instance, was totally a deficit state and had to adopt a distribution policy which was almost universal in nature.
Some states adopted a vigorous public distribution system (PDS) policy.
It is not out of place to narrate an interesting incident regarding food grain distribution in Andhra Pradesh. The Government of Andhra Pradesh in the early 1980s implemented a highly subsidised rice scheme under which poor households were given five kilograms of rice per person per month, subject to a ceiling of 25 kilograms at Rs 2 per kg. The state government required two million tonnes of rice to implement the scheme. But it received only on one million tonne from the Union government.
The state government had to purchase another million tonne of rice from rice millers in the state at a negotiated price, which was higher than the procurement price offered by the Centre, but lower than the open market price.
A large number of studies have revealed that many poor households have been excluded from the PDS network, while many undeserving households have managed to get benefits from it.
Various policy measures have been implemented to streamline PDS. A revamped PDS was introduced in 1992 to make food grain easily accessible to people in tribal and hilly areas, by providing relatively higher subsidies.
Targeted PDS was launched in 1997 to focus on households below the poverty line (BPL).
Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) was introduced to cover the poorest of the poor.
Annapoorna Scheme was introduced in 2001 to distribute 10 kg of food grains free of cost to destitutes above the age of 65 years.
In 2013, the National Food Security Act (NFSA) was passed by Parliament to expand and legalise the entitlement.
Conventionally, a card holder has to go to a particular fair price shop (FPS) and that particular shop has to be open when s/he visits it. Stock must be available in the shop. The card holder should also have sufficient time to stand in the queue to purchase his quota. The card holder has to put with rough treatment at the hands of a FPS dealer.
These problems do not exist once ration cards become smart cards. A card holder can go to any shop which is open and has available stocks. In short, the scheme has become card holder-friendly and curbed the monopoly power of the FPS dealer. Some states other than Chhattisgarh are also trying to introduce such a scheme on an experimental basis.
More recently, the Government of India has introduced a scheme called ‘One Nation One Ration Card’ which enables migrant labourers to purchase rations from the place where they reside. In August 2021, it was operational in 34 states and Union territories.
The intentions of the scheme are good but there are some hurdles in its implementation which need to be addressed. These problems arise on account of variation in:
It is not clear whether a migrant labourer gets items provided in his/her native state or those in the state s/he has migrated to and what prices will s/he be able to purchase them.
The Centre must learn lessons from the experiences of different countries in order to make PDS sustainable in the long-run.
For instance, Sri Lanka recently shifted to organic manure from chemical fertiliser without required planning. Consequently, it had to face an acute food shortage due to a shortage of organic manure.
Some analysts have cautioned against excessive dependence on chemical fertiliser.
Phosphorus is an important input in the production of chemical fertiliser and about 70-80 per cent of known resources of phosphorus are available only in Morocco.
There is possibility that Morocco may manipulate the price of phosphorus.
Providing excessive subsidies and unemployment relief may make people dependent, as in the case of Venezuela and Zimbabwe.
It is better to teach a person how to catch a fish rather than give free fish to him / her.
Hence, the government should give the right amount of subsidy to deserving people.
The government has to increase livestock as in the case of Uruguay to make the food basket broad-based and nutritious. It has to see to it that the organic content in the soil is adequate, in order to make cultivation environmentally-friendly and sustainable in the long-run.
In short, India has transformed from a food-deficit state to a food-surplus one 75 years after independence. However, the government must adopt environmental-friendly measures to sustain this achievement.
Agroforestry is an intentional integration of trees on farmland.
Globally, it is practised by 1.2 billion people on 10 per cent area of total agricultural lands (over 1 billion hectares).
It is widely popular as ‘a low hanging fruit’ due to its multifarious tangible and intangible benefits.
The net carbon sequestered in agroforestry is 11.35 tonnes of carbon per ha
A panacea for global issues such as climate change, land degradation, pollution and food security, agroforestry is highlighted as a key strategy to fulfil several targets:
In 2017, a New York Times bestseller Project Drawdown published by 200 scientists around the world with a goal of reversing climate change, came up with the most plausible 100 solutions to slash–down greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Out of these 100 solutions, 11 strategies were highlighted under the umbrella of agroforestry such as:-
Nowadays, tree-based farming in India is considered a silver bullet to cure all issues.
It was promoted under the Green India mission of 2001, six out of eight missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and National Agroforestry and Bamboo Mission (NABM), 2017 to bring a third of the geographical area under tree cover and offsetting GHG emissions.
These long-term attempts by the Government of India have helped enhance the agroforestry area to 13.75 million hectares.
The net carbon sequestered in agroforestry is 11.35 tonnes of carbon per ha and carbon sequestration potential is 0.35 tonnes of carbon per ha per year at the country level, according to the Central Agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi.
India will reduce an additional 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 by increasing tree cover. This extra tree cover could be achieved through agroforestry systems because of their ability to withstand minimum inputs under extreme situations.
Here are some examples which portray the role of agroforestry in achieving at least nine out of the 17 SDGs through sustainable food production, ecosystem services and economic benefits:
SDG 1 — No Poverty: Almost 736 million people still live in extreme poverty. Diversification through integrating trees in agriculture unlocks the treasure to provide multifunctional benefits.
Studies carried out in 2003 in the arid regions of India reported a 10-15 per cent increase in crop yield with Prosopis cineraria (khejari). Adoption of agroforestry increases income & production by reducing the cost of input & production.
SDG 2 — Zero hunger: Tree-based systems provide food and monetary returns. Traditional agroforestry systems like Prosopis cineraria and Madhuca longifolia (Mahua) provide edible returns during drought years known as “lifeline to the poor people”.
Studies showed that 26-50 per cent of households involved in tree products collection and selling act as a coping strategy to deal with hunger.
SDG 3 — Good health and well-being: Human wellbeing and health are depicted through the extent of healthy ecosystems and services they provide.
Agroforestry contributes increased access to diverse nutritious food, supply of medicine, clean air and reduces heat stress.
Vegetative buffers can filter airstreams of particulates by removing dust, gas, microbial constituents and heavy metals.
SDG 5 — Gender equality: Throughout the world around 3 billion people depend on firewood for cooking.
In this, women are the main collectors and it brings drudgery and health issues.
A study from India stated that almost 374 hours per year are spent by women for collection of firewood. Growing trees nearby provides easy access to firewood and diverts time to productive purposes.
SDG 6 — Clean Water and Sanitation: Water is probably the most vital resource for our survival. The inherent capacity of trees offers hydrological regulation as evapotranspiration recharges atmospheric moisture for rainfall; enhanced soil infiltration recharges groundwater; obstructs sediment flow; rainwater filtration by accumulation of heavy metals.
An extensive study in 35 nations published in 2017 concluded that 30 per cent of tree cover in watersheds resulted in improved sanitisation and reduced diarrheal disease.
SDG 7 — Affordable & Clean Energy: Wood fuels are the only source of energy to billions of poverty-stricken people.
Though trees are substitutes of natural forests, modern technologies in the form of biofuels, ethanol, electricity generation and dendro-biomass sources are truly affordable and clean.
Ideal agroforestry models possess fast-growing, high coppicing, higher calorific value and short rotation (2-3 years) characteristics and provide biomass of 200-400 tonnes per ha.
SDG 12 — Responsible consumption and production: The production of agricultural and wood-based commodities on a sustainable basis without depleting natural resources and as low as external inputs (chemical fertilisers and pesticides) to reduce the ecological footprints.
SDG 13 — Climate action: Globally, agricultural production accounts for up to 24 per cent of GHG emissions from around 22.2 million square km of agricultural area, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization.
A 2016 study depicted that conversion of agricultural land to agroforestry sequesters about 27.2± 13.5 tonnes CO2 equivalent per ha per year after establishment of systems.
Trees on farmland mitigate 109.34 million tonnes CO2 equivalent annually from 15.31 million ha, according to a 2017 report. This may offset a third of the total GHG emissions from the agriculture sector of India.
SDG 15 — Life on Land: Agroforestry ‘mimics the forest ecosystem’ to contribute conservation of flora and faunas, creating corridors, buffers to existing reserves and multi-functional landscapes.
Delivery of ecosystem services of trees regulates life on land. A one-hectare area of homegardens in Kerala was found to have 992 trees from 66 species belonging to 31 families, a recent study showed.
The report of the World Agroforestry Centre highlighted those 22 countries that have registered agroforestry as a key strategy in achieving their unconditional national contributions.
Recently, the Government of India has allocated significant financial support for promotion of agroforestry at grassroot level to make the Indian economy as carbon neutral. This makes agroforestry a low-hanging fruit to achieve the global goals.
A disaster is a result of natural or man-made causes that leads to sudden disruption of normal life, causing severe damage to life and property to an extent that available social and economic protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope.
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) of the United Nations (U.N.) defines a hazard as “a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.”
Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural and man-made disasters. As per severity, disasters are classified as minor or major (in impact). However, such classifications are more academic than real.
High Powered Committee (HPC) was constituted in August 1999 under the chairmanship of J.C.Pant. The mandate of the HPC was to prepare comprehensive model plans for disaster management at the national, state and district levels.
This was the first attempt in India towards a systematic comprehensive and holistic look at all disasters.
Thirty odd disasters have been identified by the HPC, which were grouped into the following five categories, based on generic considerations:-
Water and Climate Related:-
Geological:-
Biological:-
Chemical, industrial and nuclear:-
Accidental:-
India’s Key Vulnerabilities as articulated in the Tenth Plan, (2002-07) are as follows:
Vulnerability is defined as:-
“the extent to which a community, structure, service, or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster prone area”.
The concept of vulnerability therefore implies a measure of risk combined with the level of social and economic ability to cope with the resulting event in order to resist major disruption or loss.
Example:- The 1993 Marathwada earthquake in India left over 10,000 dead and destroyed houses and other properties of 200,000 households. However, the technically much more powerful Los Angeles earthquake of 1971 (taken as a benchmark in America in any debate on the much-apprehended seismic vulnerability of California) left over 55 dead.
Physical Vulnerability:-
Physical vulnerability relates to the physical location of people, their proximity to the hazard zone and standards of safety maintained to counter the effects.
The Indian subcontinent can be primarily divided into three geophysical regions with regard to vulnerability, broadly, as, the Himalayas, the Plains and the Coastal areas.
Socio-economic Vulnerability:-
The degree to which a population is affected by a calamity will not purely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but in contextual, relating to the prevailing social and economic conditions and its consequential effects on human activities within a given society.
Global Warming & Climate Change:-
Global warming is going to make other small local environmental issues seemingly insignificant, because it has the capacity to completely change the face of the Earth. Global warming is leading to shrinking glaciers and rising sea levels. Along with floods, India also suffers acute water shortages.
The steady shrinking of the Himalayan glaciers means the entire water system is being disrupted; global warming will cause even greater extremes. Impacts of El Nino and La Nina have increasingly led to disastrous impacts across the globe.
Scientifically, it is proven that the Himalayan glaciers are shrinking, and in the next fifty to sixty years they would virtually run out of producing the water levels that we are seeing now.
This will cut down drastically the water available downstream, and in agricultural economies like the plains of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Bihar, which are poor places to begin with. That, as one may realise, would cause tremendous social upheaval.
Urban Risks:-
India is experiencing massive and rapid urbanisation. The population of cities in India is doubling in a period ranging just two decades according to the trends in the recent past.
It is estimated that by 2025, the urban component, which was only 25.7 per cent (1991) will be more than 50 per cent.
Urbanisation is increasing the risks at unprecedented levels; communities are becoming increasingly vulnerable, since high-density areas with poorly built and maintained infrastructure are subjected to natural hazards, environmental degradation, fires, flooding and earthquake.
Urbanisation dramatically increases vulnerability, whereby communities are forced to squat on environmentally unstable areas such as steep hillsides prone to landslide, by the side of rivers that regularly flood, or on poor quality ground, causing building collapse.
Most prominent amongst the disasters striking urban settlements frequently are, floods and fire, with incidences of earthquakes, landslides, droughts and cyclones. Of these, floods are more devastating due to their widespread and periodic impact.
Example: The 2005 floods of Maharashtra bear testimony to this. Heavy flooding caused the sewage system to overflow, which contaminated water lines. On August 11, the state government declared an epidemic of leptospirosis in Mumbai and its outskirts.
Developmental activities:-
Developmental activities compound the damaging effects of natural calamities. The floods in Rohtak (Haryana) in 1995 are an appropriate example of this. Even months after the floodwaters had receded; large parts of the town were still submerged.
Damage had not accrued due to floods, but due to water-logging which had resulted due to peculiar topography and poor land use planning.
Disasters have come to stay in the forms of recurring droughts in Orissa, the desertification of swaths of Gujarat and Rajasthan, where economic depredations continuously impact on already fragile ecologies and environmental degradation in the upstream areas of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Floods in the plains are taking an increasing toll of life, environment, and property, amplified by a huge population pressure.
The unrestricted felling of forests, serious damage to mountain ecology, overuse of groundwater and changing patterns of cultivation precipitate recurring floods and droughts.
When forests are destroyed, rainwater runs off causing floods and diminishing the recharging of groundwater.
The spate of landslides in the Himalayas in recent years can be directly traced to the rampant deforestation and network of roads that have been indiscriminately laid in the name of development.
Destruction of mangroves and coral reefs has increased the vulnerability of coastal areas to hazards, such as storm surges and cyclones.
Commercialisation of coastal areas, particularly for tourism has increased unplanned development in these areas, which has increased disaster potential, as was demonstrated during the Tsunami in December 2004.
Environmental Stresses:- " Delhi-Case Study"
Every ninth student in Delhi’s schools suffers from Asthma. Delhi is the world’s fourth most polluted city.
Each year, poor environmental conditions in the city’s informal areas lead to epidemics.
Delhi has one of the highest road accident fatality ratios in the world. In many ways, Delhi reflects the sad state of urban centers within India that are exposed to risks, which are misconstrued and almost never taken into consideration for urban governance.
The main difference between modernism and postmodernism is that modernism is characterized by the radical break from the traditional forms of urban architecture whereas postmodernism is characterized by the self-conscious use of earlier styles and conventions.
Illustration of Disaster Cycle through Case Study:-
The processes covered by the disaster cycle can be illustrated through the case of the Gujarat Earthquake of 26 January 2001. The devastating earthquake killed thousands of people and destroyed hundreds of thousands of houses and other buildings.
The State Government as well as the National Government immediately mounted a largescale relief operation. The help of the Armed Forces was also taken.
Hundreds of NGOs from within the region and other parts of the country as well as from other countries of the world came to Gujarat with relief materials and personnel to help in the relief operations.
Relief camps were set up, food was distributed, mobile hospitals worked round the clock to help the injured; clothing, beddings, tents, and other commodities were distributed to the affected people over the next few weeks.
By the summer of 2001, work started on long-term recovery. House reconstruction programmes were launched, community buildings were reconstructed, and damaged infrastructure was repaired and reconstructed.
Livelihood programmes were launched for economic rehabilitation of the affected people.
In about two year’s time the state had bounced back and many of the reconstruction projects had taken the form of developmental programmes aiming to deliver even better infrastructure than what existed before the earthquake.
Good road networks, water distribution networks, communication networks, new schools, community buildings, health and education programmes, all worked towards developing the region.
The government as well as the NGOs laid significant emphasis on safe development practices. The buildings being constructed were of earthquake resistant designs.
Older buildings that had survived the earthquake were retrofitted in large numbers to strengthen them and to make them resistant to future earthquakes. Mason and engineer training programmes were carried out at a large scale to ensure that all future construction in the State is disaster resistant.
This case study shows how there was a disaster event during the earthquake, followed by immediate response and relief, then by recovery including rehabilitation and retrofitting, then by developmental processes.
The development phase included mitigation activities, and finally preparedness actions to face future disasters.
Then disaster struck again, but the impact was less than what it could have been, primarily due to better mitigation and preparedness efforts.
Looking at the relationship between disasters and development one can identify ‘four’ different dimensions to this relation:
1) Disasters can set back development
2) Disasters can provide development opportunities
3) Development can increase vulnerability and
4) Development can reduce vulnerability
The whole relationship between disaster and development depends on the development choice made by the individual, community and the nation who implement the development programmes.
The tendency till now has been mostly to associate disasters with negativities. We need to broaden our vision and work on the positive aspects associated with disasters as reflected below:
1)Evolution of Disaster Management in India
Disaster management in India has evolved from an activity-based reactive setup to a proactive institutionalized structure; from single faculty domain to a multi-stakeholder setup; and from a relief-based approach to a ‘multi-dimensional pro-active holistic approach for reducing risk’.
Over the past century, the disaster management in India has undergone substantive changes in its composition, nature and policy.
2)Emergence of Institutional Arrangement in India-
A permanent and institutionalised setup began in the decade of 1990s with set up of a disaster management cell under the Ministry of Agriculture, following the declaration of the decade of 1990 as the ‘International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly.
Consequently, the disaster management division was shifted under the Ministry of Home Affairs in 2002
3)Disaster Management Framework:-
Shifting from relief and response mode, disaster management in India started to address the
issues of early warning systems, forecasting and monitoring setup for various weather related
hazards.
National Level Institutions:-National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):-
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was initially constituted on May 30, 2005 under the Chairmanship of Prime Minister vide an executive order.
SDMA (State Level, DDMA(District Level) also present.
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)
Legal Framework For Disaster Management :-
DMD- Disaster management Dept.
NIDM- National Institute of Disaster Management
NDRF – National Disaster Response Fund
Cabinet Committee on Disaster Management-
Location of NDRF Battallions(National Disaster Response Force):-
CBRN- Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
Policy and response to Climate Change :-
1)National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)-
National Action Plan on Climate Change identified Eight missions.
• National Solar Mission
• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
• National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
• National Mission for Sustaining The Himalayan Ecosystem
• National Water Mission
• National Mission for Green India
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
• National Mission for Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change
2)National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM),2009-
The policy envisages a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster oriented and technologydriven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response. The policy covers all aspects of disaster management including institutional and legal arrangements,financial arrangements, disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness, techno-legal regime, response, relief and rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery, capacity development, knowledge management, research and development. It focuses on the areas where action is needed and the institutional mechanism through which such action can be channelised.
Prevention and Mitigation Projects:-
Early Warning Nodal Agencies:-
Post Disaster Management :-Post disaster management responses are created according to the disaster and location. The principles being – Faster Recovery, Resilient Reconstruction and proper Rehabilitation.
Capacity Development:-
Components of capacity development includes :-
National Institute for Capacity Development being – National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
International Cooperation-
Way Forward:-
Principles and Steps:-
The United Nations has shaped so much of global co-operation and regulation that we wouldn’t recognise our world today without the UN’s pervasive role in it. So many small details of our lives – such as postage and copyright laws – are subject to international co-operation nurtured by the UN.
In its 75th year, however, the UN is in a difficult moment as the world faces climate crisis, a global pandemic, great power competition, trade wars, economic depression and a wider breakdown in international co-operation.
Still, the UN has faced tough times before – over many decades during the Cold War, the Security Council was crippled by deep tensions between the US and the Soviet Union. The UN is not as sidelined or divided today as it was then. However, as the relationship between China and the US sours, the achievements of global co-operation are being eroded.
The way in which people speak about the UN often implies a level of coherence and bureaucratic independence that the UN rarely possesses. A failure of the UN is normally better understood as a failure of international co-operation.
We see this recently in the UN’s inability to deal with crises from the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar, to civil conflict in Syria, and the failure of the Security Council to adopt a COVID-19 resolution calling for ceasefires in conflict zones and a co-operative international response to the pandemic.
The UN administration is not primarily to blame for these failures; rather, the problem is the great powers – in the case of COVID-19, China and the US – refusing to co-operate.
Where states fail to agree, the UN is powerless to act.
Marking the 75th anniversary of the official formation of the UN, when 50 founding nations signed the UN Charter on June 26, 1945, we look at some of its key triumphs and resounding failures.
Five successes
1. Peacekeeping
The United Nations was created with the goal of being a collective security organisation. The UN Charter establishes that the use of force is only lawful either in self-defence or if authorised by the UN Security Council. The Security Council’s five permanent members, being China, US, UK, Russia and France, can veto any such resolution.
The UN’s consistent role in seeking to manage conflict is one of its greatest successes.
A key component of this role is peacekeeping. The UN under its second secretary-general, the Swedish statesman Dag Hammarskjöld – who was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace prize after he died in a suspicious plane crash – created the concept of peacekeeping. Hammarskjöld was responding to the 1956 Suez Crisis, in which the US opposed the invasion of Egypt by its allies Israel, France and the UK.
UN peacekeeping missions involve the use of impartial and armed UN forces, drawn from member states, to stabilise fragile situations. “The essence of peacekeeping is the use of soldiers as a catalyst for peace rather than as the instruments of war,” said then UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, when the forces won the 1988 Nobel Peace Prize following missions in conflict zones in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, Central America and Europe.
However, peacekeeping also counts among the UN’s major failures.
2. Law of the Sea
Negotiated between 1973 and 1982, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) set up the current international law of the seas. It defines states’ rights and creates concepts such as exclusive economic zones, as well as procedures for the settling of disputes, new arrangements for governing deep sea bed mining, and importantly, new provisions for the protection of marine resources and ocean conservation.
Mostly, countries have abided by the convention. There are various disputes that China has over the East and South China Seas which present a conflict between power and law, in that although UNCLOS creates mechanisms for resolving disputes, a powerful state isn’t necessarily going to submit to those mechanisms.
Secondly, on the conservation front, although UNCLOS is a huge step forward, it has failed to adequately protect oceans that are outside any state’s control. Ocean ecosystems have been dramatically transformed through overfishing. This is an ecological catastrophe that UNCLOS has slowed, but failed to address comprehensively.
3. Decolonisation
The idea of racial equality and of a people’s right to self-determination was discussed in the wake of World War I and rejected. After World War II, however, those principles were endorsed within the UN system, and the Trusteeship Council, which monitored the process of decolonisation, was one of the initial bodies of the UN.
Although many national independence movements only won liberation through bloody conflicts, the UN has overseen a process of decolonisation that has transformed international politics. In 1945, around one third of the world’s population lived under colonial rule. Today, there are less than 2 million people living in colonies.
When it comes to the world’s First Nations, however, the UN generally has done little to address their concerns, aside from the non-binding UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples of 2007.
4. Human rights
The Human Rights Declaration of 1948 for the first time set out fundamental human rights to be universally protected, recognising that the “inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world”.
Since 1948, 10 human rights treaties have been adopted – including conventions on the rights of children and migrant workers, and against torture and discrimination based on gender and race – each monitored by its own committee of independent experts.
The language of human rights has created a new framework for thinking about the relationship between the individual, the state and the international system. Although some people would prefer that political movements focus on ‘liberation’ rather than ‘rights’, the idea of human rights has made the individual person a focus of national and international attention.
5. Free trade
Depending on your politics, you might view the World Trade Organisation as a huge success, or a huge failure.
The WTO creates a near-binding system of international trade law with a clear and efficient dispute resolution process.
The majority Australian consensus is that the WTO is a success because it has been good for Australian famers especially, through its winding back of subsidies and tariffs.
However, the WTO enabled an era of globalisation which is now politically controversial.
Recently, the US has sought to disrupt the system. In addition to the trade war with China, the Trump Administration has also refused to appoint tribunal members to the WTO’s Appellate Body, so it has crippled the dispute resolution process. Of course, the Trump Administration is not the first to take issue with China’s trade strategies, which include subsidises for ‘State Owned Enterprises’ and demands that foreign firms transfer intellectual property in exchange for market access.
The existence of the UN has created a forum where nations can discuss new problems, and climate change is one of them. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up in 1988 to assess climate science and provide policymakers with assessments and options. In 1992, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change created a permanent forum for negotiations.
However, despite an international scientific body in the IPCC, and 165 signatory nations to the climate treaty, global greenhouse gas emissions have continued to increase.
Under the Paris Agreement, even if every country meets its greenhouse gas emission targets we are still on track for ‘dangerous warming’. Yet, no major country is even on track to meet its targets; while emissions will probably decline this year as a result of COVID-19, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases will still increase.
This illustrates a core conundrum of the UN in that it opens the possibility of global cooperation, but is unable to constrain states from pursuing their narrowly conceived self-interests. Deep co-operation remains challenging.
Five failures of the UN
1. Peacekeeping
During the Bosnian War, Dutch peacekeeping forces stationed in the town of Srebrenica, declared a ‘safe area’ by the UN in 1993, failed in 1995 to stop the massacre of more than 8000 Muslim men and boys by Bosnian Serb forces. This is one of the most widely discussed examples of the failures of international peacekeeping operations.
On the massacre’s 10th anniversary, then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan wrote that the UN had “made serious errors of judgement, rooted in a philosophy of impartiality”, contributing to a mass murder that would “haunt our history forever”.
If you look at some of the other infamous failures of peacekeeping missions – in places such as Rwanda, Somalia and Angola – it is the limited powers given to peacekeeping operations that have resulted in those failures.
2. The invasion of Iraq
The invasion of Iraq by the US in 2003, which was unlawful and without Security Council authorisation, reflects the fact that the UN is has very limited capacity to constrain the actions of great powers.
The Security Council designers created the veto power so that any of the five permanent members could reject a Council resolution, so in that way it is programmed to fail when a great power really wants to do something that the international community generally condemns.
In the case of the Iraq invasion, the US didn’t veto a resolution, but rather sought authorisation that it did not get. The UN, if you go by the idea of collective security, should have responded by defending Iraq against this unlawful use of force.
The invasion proved a humanitarian disaster with the loss of more than 400,000 lives, and many believe that it led to the emergence of the terrorist Islamic State.
3. Refugee crises
The UN brokered the 1951 Refugee Convention to address the plight of people displaced in Europe due to World War II; years later, the 1967 Protocol removed time and geographical restrictions so that the Convention can now apply universally (although many countries in Asia have refused to sign it, owing in part to its Eurocentric origins).
Despite these treaties, and the work of the UN High Commission for Refugees, there is somewhere between 30 and 40 million refugees, many of them, such as many Palestinians, living for decades outside their homelands. This is in addition to more than 40 million people displaced within their own countries.
While for a long time refugee numbers were reducing, in recent years, particularly driven by the Syrian conflict, there have been increases in the number of people being displaced.
During the COVID-19 crisis, boatloads of Rohingya refugees were turned away by port after port. This tragedy has echoes of pre-World War II when ships of Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi Germany were refused entry by multiple countries.
And as a catastrophe of a different kind looms, there is no international framework in place for responding to people who will be displaced by rising seas and other effects of climate change.
4. Conflicts without end
Across the world, there is a shopping list of unresolved civil conflicts and disputed territories.
Palestine and Kashmir are two of the longest-running failures of the UN to resolve disputed lands. More recent, ongoing conflicts include the civil wars in Syria and Yemen.
The common denominator of unresolved conflicts is either division among the great powers, or a lack of international interest due to the geopolitical stakes not being sufficiently high. For instance, the inaction during the Rwandan civil war in the 1990s was not due to a division among great powers, but rather a lack of political will to engage.
In Syria, by contrast, Russia and the US have opposing interests and back opposing sides: Russia backs the government of the Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad, whereas the US does not.
5. Acting like it’s 1945
The UN is increasingly out of step with the reality of geopolitics today.
The permanent members of the Security Council reflect the division of power internationally at the end of World War II. The continuing exclusion of Germany, Japan, and rising powers such as India and Indonesia, reflects the failure to reflect the changing balance of power.
Also, bodies such as the IMF and the World Bank, which are part of the UN system, continue to be dominated by the West. In response, China has created potential rival institutions such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank.
Western domination of UN institutions undermines their credibility. However, a more fundamental problem is that institutions designed in 1945 are a poor fit with the systemic global challenges – of which climate change is foremost – that we face today.