Note- The article is little technical in nature. It also refers to different geological timescale, here is a list for better understanding :-
In the early 1800s European priests and doctors visiting India found ample dinosaur remains strewn about the place. In fact, one such gentleman – a captain, is fondly remembered with the city Sleemanabad (located midway between Allahabad and Jabalpur) dedicated to him. Major General William Henry Sleeman, the dinosaur `bone collector’ was a famous man indeed.
Well, there have been many more after him, and not all of them are Europeans. Sohan Lal Jain and Sankar Chatterjee are names that hold great reverence in this field.
It is now time to discover the wonder of our desi dinosaurs. When did they live? Of course, in the same age as the other dinosaurs of the world. Perhaps it was Permian period of the Palaeozoic era when it all began, with early dinosaur like creatures, Endothiodon, slowly roaming the earth. Then, with time and evolution, Triassic saw the development of our now familiar dinosaur. Although it was the period of Jurassic that laid claim to the fastest and the cunningest of the creatures.
Ossified Skin of an Indian Dinosaur (Left) and Cross Section of the Ossified Skin (Right)
By Cretaceous, life changed! There are several theories as to why it changed. Some say that meteors struck the earth’s surface, while others stress on the increased volcanic activity both of which caused huge dark clouds to wipe out all plant forms. Plant life was rapidly snuffed out due to lack of sunlight and only those that could live in near darkness, survived.
The Lumbering Endothiodon
What kind of plants were these? Essentially ferns, fossils, which may be found in the coal seams that belong to the age. As a result the food chain was grossly disturbed and dinosaurs breathed their last.
Still others say that sea level changes affected plant life adversely. How? Well, as the sea level began to fall, perhaps due to the onset of an ice age, the lands which lay in the heart of the continent became dry and harsh due to continentality.
With such a development, the plant life found itself unable to adapt, thus wiping out the dinosaur population which depended upon them. However, we may add that it is not as if fauna and flora cannot adjust to change. But change has to be gradual, only then the flora of an area finds sufficient time to adapt and survive. A cataclysmic event, much like what happened here, doesn’t allow much scope to adjust.
And yes, we do have craters to prove that meteors did hit the land we call India. Have you visited the Lonar Lake in Maharashtra? Well, it is a crater. Moreover, the volcanic activity of the Deccan influenced the slow deterioration of the food web by blocking out sunlight.
However, whatever the reasons, the end of Cretaceous saw a new world order. Now it was the turn of the mammals to rule. But then, do dinosaurs have no present day descendants? Of course they do. Two living legends belong to the crocodile and the delightful bird family. Birds, the flying dinosaurs, in fact are theropods, which provide the missing link between dinosaurs of the past and the present.
When dinosaur roamed the earth, was India located where it is presently?
Not really! India was located in the southern continent in the Permian epoch. All clubbed together- India, Africa, Australia and Madagascar were ancient lands upon which Endothiodon, a slow moving reptile, lazily sauntered.
Parasuchians – Ancestors of the Modern Day Gharial
Then as the epoch progressed, the lands separated from each other and by Jurassic, India had drifted northwards nearer the tropics. By Cretaceous, India was closer to the equator. In fact, most scientists believe that our nation behaved like Biblical Noah’s arc, carrying varied flora and fauna through a long journey of time over 15-20 million years. The Indian landmass was reconnected with ‘land’ along the southern shores of Asia around 55 million years ago.
The Seaways of Cretaceous India
It was then that the Himalayas began to rise due to the northward push of the Indian Peninsular block.
And which small island, do you think, accompanied our peninsular block part of the way? Yes, it was Madagascar. However, about 80 million years ago, they were unfortunately separated, to follow their own paths.
How do we know this? Well, geological and paleontological evidences give clues which help us solve the puzzle of the drifting continents.
Did our peninsular block look just the same during the Cretaceous period? It would perhaps be erroneous to assume that. Evidences suggest that the landscape that you are now familiar with was broken in two places. One arm of the sea pushed inland from the west, in the present valley of Narmada, known as the Narmada seaway, while another, which lay in the southeast corner of present day India, the Godavari seaway, extended inland along the present valley of Godavari.
Why are these seaways so relevant? Well, it seems that dinosaurs were rarely found far from the arm of these seaways. Thus fossils, remains and eggs of the Cretaceous dinosaurs are easily found in these areas.
Plateosaurus – the large thumb claw owner
So much for the ancient Indian landscape, what about the dinosaurs that called India their home?
Before dinosaurs as we know them from Spielberg’s thrillers evolved, Endothiodons ruled the world (table 1). Beginning from the Permian what were the interesting creatures that lived here? There was a land and water loving amphibian named Archegosaurus, besides other fish and shark like creatures. And of course there was our low-bellied Endothiodon, grand daddy of dinosaurs.
However only about 20 per cent of all creatures that were known in the Permian managed to survive in the Triassic epoch. Why? Well, because there was a catastrophe which led to mass extinction. A sudden change in climate, a drop of oxygen levels and the skies above covered with smoke and ash from the Siberian vulcanism cut out the sunlight and filled the air with toxic gases.
However, thankfully the ancestors of man and the dinosaurs survived. Thecodonts or small two and four footed carnivorous animals began to gain prominence in this adaptation period. Early crocodiles, proter-osuchians evolved in this period.
In fact India had an animal called the Parasuchus hislopi, which was perhaps somewhat like our modern day gharial. They were excellently adapted for land and water, blissfully basking on the banks, devouring Triassic fish and other poor creatures that happened to visit the water hole.
Another creature, the Rauisuchians were ferocious thecodonts of the age. Look at the picture – their jaws do look awesome! However you would be surprised to know that these poor beasts, Indian one called Paradepedon huxleyi, perhaps ate only snails and molluscs, cracking their hard shells open with these powerful jaws.
Rauisuchian – Paradepedon Huxleyi
As dinosaurs evolved they became fast moving, larger and bipedal, and slowly moved up the food chain to become top predators. In fact, the earliest dinosaur of the Triassic, Alwalkeria maleriensis, was a cunning little chap. He could even hunt down our snail cracking Paradepedon huxleyi, who was no doubt a slow moving hunter of the times and no match for the athletic Alwalkeria.
Nearing the end of Triassic, fossils of Plateosaurids are found. These were the ancestors of the better known four legged huge sauropods of the Jurassic. These creatures roamed languidly over the plains clasping food with their huge thumb claws, chewing them thoughtfully with peg like teeth.
But again suddenly, all good things came to an abrupt end. Severe dry conditions prevailed for a continuing period which wiped out several plant species. The food chain was again disturbed. But then, after the darkest night we do see the glimmer of day light – at least that is what we have experienced uptil now. Thus fair weather again took charge and dinosaurs increased in size and adapted to a whole new world.
In fact these animals could give a run for the poor thecodont’s life, who uptil now co-existed with his faster descendants. It is also known that between the dinosaur stage and the thecodont stage, a coelosaus stage also existed. The coelosaus were small, very agile little fellows and have been grouped as early dinosaurs. Thus the change from thecodonts to a full fledged dinosaur took over 5 million years, by the end of which the dinosaur constituted more than 60 per cent of the known vertebrates of the time.
And when do you think this happened?
Yes, it was during the Jurassic! The saurids (reptiles) grew larger and two of them; Barapasaurus tagorei and Kotasaurus were huge creatures towering over 4 to 5 m in height and 24 m in length. In fact we have a story behind why they were called what they are! `Bara’ ‘pa’ would literally means big foot; which is indicative of the huge femur bone of 1.7 m found initially, before the rest of the fossil was unearthed. Why tagorei? Well, because the day it was discovered happened to be the birth centenary of Guru Rabindranath Tagore. As for Kotasaurus it was unimaginatively named after the bed of find.
Barapasaurus (The Big Footed Reptile)
But, whatever the stories, it was a remarkable find. So unique was this immense animal that its skeleton was found to be modified so that its mobility and efficiency stood uncompromised.
How was the skeleton modified? Well, besides the bones that formed the support of the barapasauras, the other bones were hollow and light. It also had huge pillar like legs to support its immense weight and a relatively small skull. This herbivorous saurid munched its food with spoon like teeth.
| Critters of the Past at a Glance | |||
| Period | Dinosaur / Creature | Description | Area Found |
| Permian (290 Million Years Ago) | |||
| Permian | Archegosaurus | Amphibian | Andhra Pradesh is the Kundaram formation |
| Permian Fish and Sharks | Fish and Sharks | ||
| Endothiodon | Herbivore, ungainly low bellied reptiles with sprawling gait which migrated great distances. | Kashmir | |
| Late Permian | Thecodonts – formed part of 20 per cent that survived the End-Permian upheaval. | Reptiles were 1-3 meters in size. These are ancestors of dinosaurs which is an intermediate stage to the much larger and better known Sauropods of Jurassic. | Andhra Pradesh |
| End Permian | Witnessed a mass extinction due to a great catastrophe which included sudden change in climate, sudden drop in oxygen levels and intensive volcanism from Siberia. | ||
| Triassic (248 Million Years Ago) | |||
| Early Triassic | Thecodonts is the form of Proterosuchians and | Early Crocodiles | |
| Pseudosuchians | False Crocodiles | ||
| In India the form of Thecodont found was Parasuchus hislopi | Long snouted gharial like animal which lived on fish in land and water | Maleri beds in Andhra Pradesh | |
| Rauisuchians | Contemporary thecodonts, 5-6 meters in length | ||
| A form in India is Paradepedon Huxleyi | 1.4 meter in length. It ate snails and molluscs. It could crack thin hard shells open with the help of powerful jaws and teeth | ||
| Triassic | Alwalkeria Maleriensis – The earliest dinosaur in India | Small and slender, skull about 9 cm. (like a modern day dog), teeth not serrated but pointed backwards. Neck elongated, foot had three toes. It was bipedal and fast moving. Equipped to hunt the other hunter of the time, Rauisuchians, although they were much larger and no match for the fast moving Alwalkeria. | Village Nennel in Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh |
| End of Triassic | Great aridity with desert like conditions placing severe stress on animals and plants. There was mass extinction of the several plants and animals which died out suddenly. | ||
| Plateosaurus | Primitive pro-sauropod dinosaur. They represent and intermediate stage of evolution between the earliest dinosaur and better known Jurassic Sauropods. They were fairly large being about 5-10 meters in length, with strong hind limbs, huge thumb claws for clasping, peg like teeth, and had relatively small skull | Dharmaram formation in Andhra Pradesh | |
| Jurassic (206 Million Years Ago) – Age of Dinosaurs | |||
| Early Jurassic | Coelosaurus | Small active theropods – early dinosaurs that were fast on the toes – much like the athletes of today. | Jabalpur Cantonment around Bara Shimla Hill |
| Jurassic | Barapasaurus Tagorei (Sauropod Dinosaur) | Big foot reptile, thigh bone 1.7 meter in length, teeth small and spoon-shaped and small skull. Herbivore – 4 to 5 meters in height, 24 meters in length | Kutch, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Kota and Adilabad |
| Kotsaurus | Similar to Baraspasaurus | Specimens from limestone deposit representing a lake or a lagoon now known as Kota Limestone | |
| Stegosaurus | Small elongated slender skull, large dermal, triangular bony plates | Bagra beds of Satpura region and Kutch | |
| Cretaceous (142 Million Years Ago) | |||
| Early Cretaceous | Has not produced any fossils but has immense potential in the Gangpur formation in the Godavari Valley | ||
| Cretaceous | Diplodocine | Long neck, small skull, pillar like legs and a large body | Bagra beds of Satpura and Kutch |
| Titanosaurus Colberti – Most common saurapod found, with 6 to 7 types of genera | Large plant eating species – 25 meters in height, 15 meters in length. Extremely small teeth. Perhaps swallowed pebbles (gastoliths) to break up food in their stomach as their teeth seemed inadequate for supporting such a large diet. | Wardha area, north of Nagpur | |
| Abelisaurids had two forms – Indosuchus raptorious and Indosaurus matleyi | Biggest enemies of titanosaurus. Carnivorous with incisor like teeth – 8 to 10 cms. Their approximate height was 4 meters and length was 10 to 12 meters. | In all localities and also in Ariyalur beds in South India | |
| Nodosaurid ankylosaur | Well-developed spiny scales, armoured, long slender headed herbivores | Found in the Balasinor – Rahioli localities in Kheda near Ahmedabad | |
| Late Cretaceous | Dinosaur materials are found in Cretaceous Lamenta formation near Jabalpur. Fossils are sandwiched between Deccan flows suggesting that they died out during Deccan volcanic activity. | ||
| Note: – These dinosaurs are examples of what was perhaps found in India. There are many more creatures that inhabited this land. We have however highlighted just a prominent few. | |||
You will find it interesting to note that teeth structure of dinosaurs were quite different from mammals. Why? Because if you loose your permanent teeth, beware of brawls, you wouldn’t be able to grow it again. On the other hand unlike our two sets of teeth dinosaurs could grow any number of sets all its life. Old age thus posed no problem for him and munching was easy as ever.
Well, to get on with it, let us discuss another Indian dinosaur of the age, known as the Stegosaurus. It supported large bony plates made of skin. Although initially assumed to be armour, it was later conjectured that these plates may have been a heat regulating mechanism as it contained many blood vessel openings. Still others have argued that in all probability these plates may be gender specific, owned and perhaps prominently displayed by the males!
Then we had our Diplodocine, who in all probability, dominated the scene in the end Jurassic and early Cretaceous. It had long necks with pillar like legs that supported a small skull besides its immense body.
As we move on to Cretaceous, another dinosaur, the Titanosaurus colberti emerged. A huge plant eating species, aptly named, was about 25 m in length and 15 m in height. However, perhaps all of them weren’t this large.
Titanosaurus (The Large Plant Eating Reptile)
Titanosaurus was represented in six different types of genera, marked with a difference in size and appearance. Also the teeth of this dinosaur seemed rather small for supporting such an immense frame. Scientists believe that it probably had some other means of digesting food. One suggestion points towards little pebbles, which were swallowed, to aid the animal in grinding food in the stomach. What an innovative use for pebbles that we wistfully toss away! However, we forbid you to try such an experiment on yourself or anyone!
Well, despite its size, the world wasn’t safe for our Titanosaurus. Why? Because we can hardly dare to forget the two ferocious Abelisaurids – Indosuchus raptorius and Indosaurus matleyi. These were the Indian answers to the world famous Tyrannosaurus rex. They were ferocious predators that slashed their victims open with their huge serrated teeth. The front teeth were incisor like while the teeth that lay in the posterior were nearly 8-10 cm. long. Indeed a force to reckon with!
Indosuchius (Indian Answer to T. Rex)
Finally we have the Nodosaurid ankylosaur, a herbivorous four footed dinosaur. These fellows had a triangular skull with a small and slender face. Its body was heavily armoured with heavy bony spikes. However, unlike many others which were found with clubs on their tails, the Indian species lacked such an appendage.
Ankylosaurus (The Slender Headed Herbivore)
Before ending this discussion it would be important to remember that when we discuss certain creatures in a specific epoch, it does not necessarily mean that the others have all disappeared. The issue is relative! In relation to many other critters that were found, the ones that we specially discuss in a certain era, gained importance and were the prime most species of those times.
Stegosaurus (Creature with Bony Plates of Skin)
Secondly, a fact worth mentioning is that along with the dinosaurs there were many other creatures belonging to the mammalian species that existed at the same time. Besides, over and above the dinosaurs that have achieved status in this feature, there were many other dinosaur genera which were found in India. They include Dravidosaurus, Antarctosaurus, Compsosuchus, Laevisuchus, Laplatasaurus, Jubbulpuria, Brachypodosaurus, Dryptosauroides, Lametasaurus, Ornithomimoides, and Orthogoniosaurus.
However, we need detailed research on these before we can decide what they looked like or how they led their lives.
Thirdly, the world was different from as we know it today. There were land bridges and interconnections that allowed the migration of plants and animals. Thus it would be wrong to assume that India was an isolated sphere. In fact, all our dinosaurs are in some way connected to the larger species that roamed worldwide. It must not be assumed that our study shows genera of dinosaurs which have evolved in isolation.
Finally it would perhaps be worthwhile to remember that fossil remains are always not bones. It may be anything that living creatures leave behind, from droppings to paw prints on the wet mud. In fact extensive studies are carried out on brain cases, coprolites or dung and footprints to arrive at fairly accurate records of what the creature ate and how he lived.
It is indeed hard to believe that these animals were similar to our modern day wild life, where some creatures prefer to roam in solitary abandonment while others saunter in herds. Perhaps they were even capable of intelligent coordinated killings – who knows?
Keeping the above in mind it is time to shut the time capsule and bring you to an age where clouded acrid skies, burnt plants and dying moans of the huge dinosaurs is all you can visualise. Yes, by the end of Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago, it was time for the mammals to take over.
Diplodocine (The Dinosaur with a Long Neck and a Small Skull)
Where can we find dinosaur materials in India?
Dinosaur remains are found in Mesozoic formations in India. Most of the occurrences are in the central and southern India. The stratigraphic units that contain dinosaur fossils can perhaps be classified as follows:
- Jabalpur rocks of Central India -Most dinosaurs found here are from late Cretaceous rock beds.
- The Lameta Beds which lie below the Deccan Trap located in the southern states comprising of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. This contains the most diverse and best known Indian fossils which mainly are from the Cretaceous.
It is dominated by sauropods, like the Titanosaurus, Jainosaurus, Laplatasaurus and many Titanosaurid eggs and theropods such as Indosuchus, Indosaurus, Compsosuchus, Iubbulpuria, Laevisuchus, Dryptosauroides, Coeluroides and Ornithomimoides with a few omithischians like Lametasaurus and Brachypodosaurus. - The Kota Formation of Gondwana Supergroup in Godavari Basin-Early Jurassic remains are confined largely to the Kota Formation. It also contains fossils of creatures such as Crossopterygians, Pterosaurs, Teleosairrids and Symmetrodonts. It contains a possible omithopod and two sauropods. Barapasaurus and Kotasaurus.
- The Trichinopoly and Ariyalur Formations in Cauvery Basin -Triassic deposits include the Mated Formation, which has yielded Temnospondyls, Rhynchosaurs, Phytosaurs, Cynodonts and the small theropod Alwalkeria, and the Dharmaram Formation which contains several unidentified dinosaurs including Iwo prosauropods.So much for distribution what happened to all the eggs that these dinosaurs produced?
An Indian dinosaur natural site abounds with eggs that never hatched. Digging them out of their rocky graves some were found to be ellipsoidal while most were spheroidal ranging in diameter from l0 to 211cm.
Whose eggs were these? Well paleontologists have designated different names to them according to their structure. ‘Megaloolithus’ literally mean line eggs. These may have been the babies of Titanosaurus or others belonging to the same family. Elongatoolithus are generally assigned to treat eating dinosaurs – A third type of egg, much like the modem day hens’, was the Omithischian, but without any embryos within it is impossible to ascertain whether they belonged to small theropods or birds.
Ornthischian Egg
Shell Microstructure (Pathological Section of Dinosaur Egg)
Why was no little dinosaur, or developing embryo found within these eggs?
Well, no scientist can say for certain, except perhaps conjuncturing about the likely cause. Some say that the hatcheries may have been flooded drowning these unformed babies.
Still others add that perhaps these eggs were pathologically abnormal. How? Well, it seemed that they had exceedingly thick shells, which in all probability could not absorb oxygen. Thus the eggs could not develop. A third theory suggests that these were unfertilized eggs which were produced in large quantities.
Why were they unfertilized? Perhaps during the later stages the female population exceeded the male, progressively wiping out the entire population. But whatever the cause we need more research to conclusively prove anything!
| Did you know that the tribal’s that inhabitate the dinosaurs material belt were familiar with these dinosaur eggs? Only they did not know what it was. What did they do with it? Well, they worshipped the eggs! Everyone believed that these eggs are part of God. In fact these and smooth stones were deified as symbols of Shiva and magical occurrence in clutches of five to six made their belief more powerful and their presence mystical. |
Recent Posts
- Lowering Emissions by Accelerating Forest Finance (LEAF) Coalition, a collective of the United States, United Kingdom and Norway governments, came up with a $1 billion fund.
- LEAF is supported by transnational corporations (TNCs) like Unilever plc, Amazon.com, Inc, Nestle, Airbnb, Inc as well as Emergent, a US-based non-profit.
- The world lost more than 10 million hectares of primary tropical forest cover last year, an area roughly the size of Switzerland.
- Ending tropical and subtropical forest loss by 2030 is a crucial part of meeting global climate, biodiversity and sustainable development goals. Protecting tropical forests offers one of the biggest opportunities for climate action in the coming decade.
- Tropical forests are massive carbon sinks and by investing in their protection, public and private players are likely to stock up on their carbon credits.
- The LEAF coalition initiative is a step towards concretising the aims and objectives of the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) mechanism.
- REDD+ was created by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It monetised the value of carbon locked up in the tropical forests of most developing countries, thereby propelling these countries to help mitigate climate change.
- It is a unique initiative as it seeks to help developing countries in battling the double-edged sword of development versus ecological commitment.
- The initiative comes at a crucial time. The tropics have lost close to 12.2 million hectares (mha) of tree cover last year according to global estimates released by Global Forest Watch.
- Of this, a loss of 4.2 mha occurred within humid tropical primary forests alone. It should come as no surprise that most of these lost forests were located in the developing countries of Latin America, Africa and South Asia.
- Brazil has fared dismally on the parameter of ‘annual primary forest loss’ among all countries. It has lost 1.7 mha of primary forests that are rich storehouse of carbon. India’s estimated loss in 2020 stands at 20.8 kilo hectares.
- Between 2002-2020, Brazil’s total area of humid primary forest reduced by 7.7 per cent while India’s reduced by 3.4 per cent.
- Although the loss in India is not as drastic as in Brazil, its position is nevertheless precarious. For India, this loss is equivalent to 951 metric tonnes worth carbon dioxide emissions released in the atmosphere.
- It is important to draw comparisons between Brazil and India as both countries have adopted a rather lackadaisical attitude towards deforestation-induced climate change. The Brazilian government hardly did anything to control the massive fires that gutted the Amazon rainforest in 2019.
- It is mostly around May that forest fires peak in India. However, this year India, witnessed massive forest fires in early March in states like Odisha, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Mizoram among others.
- The European Union’s Copernicus Atmospheric Monitoring Service claimed that 0.2 metric tonnes of carbon was emitted in the Uttarakhand forest fires.
- Implementation of the LEAF Coalition plan will help pump in fresh rigour among developing countries like India, that are reluctant to recognise the contributions of their forest dwelling populations in mitigating climate change.
- With the deadline for proposal submission fast approaching, India needs to act swiftly on a revised strategy.
- Although India has pledged to carry out its REDD+ commitments, it is impossible to do so without seeking knowledge from its forest dwelling population.
- providing Dominion Status to India, i.e., equal partnership of the British Commonwealth of Nations;
- all Provinces (ruled by the British India government) and Indian States (ruled by Indian princes) should constitute one Indian Union by the British Constitution;
- the Constitution of India should be framed by an elected Constituent Assembly of Indian people but if any province (or Indian State) which was not prepared to accept the Constitution was to be free to retain its constitutional position which had existed at that time.
- Such provinces were to be free to enter separate constitutional arrangements.
- there should a Union of India consisting of British India and the States, which would have jurisdiction over subjects of Foreign Affairs, Defense and Communication;
- all residuary powers would belong to the Provinces and the States;
- the Union would have Executive and Legislature consisting of the representatives from the Provinces and the States but for decision relating to a major communal issue in the legislature a majority of representatives of two major communities would be present, and voting along with the majority of all members present and voting would be required;
- the provinces would be free to form Groups with executives and legislatures;
- and each group would be free to determine the Provincial Subjects which would be taken up by the Group organisation.
Context:-
At the recently concluded Leaders’ Summit on Climate in April 2021, Lowering Emissions by Accelerating Forest Finance (LEAF) Coalition, a collective of the United States, United Kingdom and Norway governments, came up with a $1 billion fund plan that shall be offered to countries committed to arrest the decline of their tropical forests by 2030.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]What is LEAF Coalition?
Why LEAF Coalition?
Brazil & India
According to the UN-REDD programme, after the energy sector, deforestation accounts for massive carbon emissions — close to 11 per cent — in the atmosphere. Rapid urbanisation and commercialisation of forest produce are the main causes behind rampant deforestation across tropical forests.
Tribes, Forests and Government
Disregarding climate change as a valid excuse for the fires, Indian government officials were quick to lay the blame for deforestation on activities of forest dwellers and even labelled them “mischievous elements” and “unwanted elements”.
Policy makers around the world have emphasised the role of indigenous tribes and local communities in checking deforestation. These communities depend on forests for their survival as well as livelihood. Hence, they understand the need to protect forests. However, by posing legitimate environmental concerns as obstacles to real development, governments of developing countries swiftly avoid protection of forests and rights of forest dwellers.
For instance, the Government of India has not been forthcoming in recognising the socio-economic, civil, political or even cultural rights of forest dwellers. According to data from the Union Ministry of Tribal Affairs in December, 2020 over 55 per cent of this population has still not been granted either individual or community ownership of their lands.
To make matters worse, the government has undertaken systematic and sustained measures to render the landmark Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 ineffective in its implementation. The Act had sought to legitimise claims of forest dwellers on occupied forest land.
Various government decisions have seriously undermined the position of indigenous people within India. These include proposing amendments to the obsolete Indian Forest Act, 1927 that give forest officials the power to take away forest dwellers’ rights and to even use firearms with impunity.
There is also the Supreme Court’s order of February, 2019 directing state governments to evict illegal encroachers of forest land or millions of forest dwellers inhabiting forests since generations as a measure to conserve wildlife. Finally, there is the lack of data on novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) deaths among the forest dwelling population;
Tardy administration, insufficient supervision, apathetic attitude and a lack of political intent defeat the cause of forest dwelling populations in India, thereby directly affecting efforts at arresting deforestation.
Way Forward
Tuntiak Katan, a global indigenous leader from Ecuador and general coordinator of the Global Alliance of Territorial Communities, aptly indicated the next steps at the Climate Summit:
“The first step is recognition of land rights. The second step is the recognition of the contributions of local communities and indigenous communities, meaning the contributions of indigenous peoples.We also need recognition of traditional knowledge practices in order to fight climate change”
Perhaps India can begin by taking the first step.
INTRODUCTION:-
The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949, which means it was finalised by the Constituent Assembly on that day. But it became operative two months after its adoption, i.e., on 26 January 1950, which is also known as the date of its “commencement”.
[wptelegram-join-channel link=”https://t.me/s/upsctree” text=”Join @upsctree on Telegram”]However, some provisions of it, i.e., those relating to citizenship, elections, provisional Parliament, temporary and transitional provisions had become operative on 26 November 1949 itself. The reason for its commencement after two months of its adoption was to signify the January 26 as the original date of achievement of Independence.
It was this day, i.e. 26th January, in 1930 which the Indian National Congress (INC) had first celebrated as the Independence Day of India. It is important to note that the Constitution of India is product of a longdrawn process and deliberations.
EVOLUTION OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION 1858-1935
The Constitution of India embodies provisions providing basic democratic rights of human beings including the persons who are not Indian citizens. It also embodies provisions for the availability of institutions for legislation, execution and jurisdiction for the fulfilment these rights.
It presents a vision for social transformation and deepening of democracy in India. The process of evolution of democratic institutions and rights had started much before the Constituent Assembly really made the Constitution of India.
It, however, must be underlined that the features of democratic institutions and values which were introduced during the colonial period were meant to serve the colonial interests in contrast to the purpose of the provisions of the Constitution made by the Constituent Assembly of India.
Although the Indian Constitution was result of the deliberations (from December 9, 1947 to November 26, 1949) of the Constituent Assembly, some of its features had evolved over three quarters of a century through various Acts, i.e., from 1858 to 1935.
The Government of India Act, 1935, and Other Acts
With the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown, the British Parliament got involved in managing affairs of India. For achieving this purpose, from 1858 till 1935, the colonial government introduced certain features of constitution or rules of governance through different Acts. The Government of India Act, 1935 was the most important among these Acts.
First of these other Acts was Government of India Act, 1858. It provided for a combination of centralised and decetralised power structure to govern India. The centralised structure was introduced in the areas which were under the direct control of the Crown. These areas were known as British India provinces or provinces. The decentralized structure was introduced in the areas which were not under the direct control of the Crown. These areas were ruled by the Indian princes, and were known as princely states or states.
Under this system, the princes had freedom to govern in all internal matters of their princely states, but they were subject to the British control. In the centralized structure of power which was introduced in the provinces, all powers to govern India vested in the Secretary of State for India (and through him in the Crown). He acted on behalf of the Crown.
He was assisted by a fifteen-member council of ministers.There did not exist separation of executive, legislative and judicial functions of government; these all were concentrated in the hands of the Secretary of State for India. In British India, the Secretary of State of India was assisted by the Viceroy, who was assisted by an executive council.
At the district level, the viceroy was assisted by a small number of British administrators. The provincial government did not have financial autonomy. In 1870 viceroy Lord Mayo ensured that all parts of provincial administration received due share of revenue to meet their needs.
The scope of political institutions in the provinces was expanded a little further following the introduction of Council of India Act, 1909. This Act introduced for the first time a “representative element” in British India, which included elected non-official members.This Act also introduced separate representation to Muslim community.
The Government of India Act 1919 devolved some authority to the provincial governments, retaining the control of the central government (unitary government) on them.It relaxed the control of the central government in a limited way. It divided the subjects for jurisdiction of administration and sources of revenue between centre and provinces.
Under this arrangement, the provincial government was given control on resources of revenue such as land, irrigation and judicial stamps. The provincial subjects were divided into “transferred’ and “reserved” categories.
The “transferred” subjects were governed by the governor, and “reserved” subjects were governed by the legislature. The governor (executive head) was not accountable to the legislature.
The Government of India Act, 1935 was different from the earlier Government of India Acts. Unlike the earlier Acts, the Government of India Act, 1935 also provided for provincial government enjoying provincial autonomy. It provided “safeguards” for minorities.
Such “safeguards” included provisions for separate representations to Muslims, Sikhs, the Europeans, Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians. This Act also provided for three lists of divisions of power between the federation (central government) and provinces: federal (central), concurrent and provincial.
The Act also provided for establishment of a federal court to adjudicate disputes between federation and provinces. The executive head of the provincial government was Governor, who enjoyed special power. Under the special power the Governor could veto the decisions of the provincial legislature.
He acted on behalf of the Crown, and was not a subordinate of the Governor-General (the changed designation of Viceroy). He enjoyed discretionary powers to exercise his “individual judgments” in certain matters. In such matters, he did not need to work under the advice of ministers: he was to act under the control of the Governor-General, and indeed the Secretary of the State.
He was also not accountable to the legislature but he was required to act on the advice of ministers, who were accountable to the legislature.
Government of India Act, 1935 also had provisions for setting up a central government consisting of representatives from the provinces(areas ruled by the British India government) and the states (the areas covered under princely states).Such government was supposed to be known as federal government because of composition with members both from provinces and the states.
However, the federal government could not be formed because there was no unanimity among the princes to join the federation; consent of all princes was essential for the formation of federation. Thus, only the provincial governments could be formed as per this Act.
And election to the provincial legislature as per the Government of India Act, 1935 was held in 1937. Following the election of 1937, provincial governments headed by the Indian National Congresswere formed in eight provinces. The Indian National Congress government resigned in 1937. Nevertheless, according to M. Govinda Rao and Nirvikar Singh (2005), the Government of India Act, 1935 provided a basis to the Constituent Assembly to make the Constitution.
The Nehru Report(1928): First Indian Initiative to Draft Constitution
As you have read above, attempts to introduce elements of constitution in British India through different Act since 1858 were made by the British rulers. Indians had no role in it.
The first attempt by Indians themselves to prepare a Constitution of India was made in the Nehru Report(1928).Earlier, effort by Indians was made in the name of the swaraj (self-rule) by leaders of Indian national movement during the non-cooperation movement in 1921-22.
The Nehru Report was known as such because it was named after the chairman of its drafting committee, Motilal Nehru. The decision to constitute the drafting committee was taken in the conference of the established All India parties. The principal among these parties included Indian National Congress, Swaraj Party and Muslim League. The Justice Party of Madras and Unionist Party of Punjab did not participate in this meeting.
The Nehru Report demanded universal suffrage for adults and responsible government both in the centre and in the provinces. It, however, supported the Dominion Status, not complete independence for India.
It meant that Indians would have freedom to legislate on certain limited matters under the control of the British India government. For this, the Nehru Report prepared list of central and provincial subjects, and fundamental rights. It also raised demands for universal suffrage for men and women adults.
Indeed, it was in 1934, a few years after the preparation of the Nehru report, that the Indian National Congress officially demanded a constitution of Indian people, without the interference of outsiders.
FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
The Cripps Mission
Initially, the colonial authorities resisted the demand for creation of a Constitution of India. But with the change in the circumstances – the outbreak of the World War II and formation of the new Coalition (Labour-led) government in Britain, the British government was forced to acknowledge the urgency to solve the problem related to Constitution of Indians.
In 1942, the British government sent its cabinet member – Sir Stafford Cripps with the draft declaration on proposals (regarding formation of constitution for Indians) to be implemented at the end of the WW II provided both the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress had agreed to accept them.
The draft proposals of the Cripps Mission recommended the following:
Both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League did not accept the proposals of the Cripps Mission. The Muslim League demanded that India should be divided on the communal lines and some provinces should form an independent state of Pakistan; and, there should be two Constituent Assemblies, one for Pakistan and another for India.
The Cabinet Mission
The British Indian government made several attempts to bridge the differences between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. But it was unsuccessful.
The British government sent another delegation of the Cabinet members, known as the Cabinet Delegation, which came to be known as the Cabinet Mission Plan. It consisted of three cabinet members – Lord Pathic Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and Mr. A.V. Alexander.
The Cabinet Delegation also failed to bring the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League to an agreement. It, however, made its own proposal which was announced simultaneously on 16 May, 1946 in England as well as in India.
The Cabinet delegation made the following recommendations:
Election to the Constituent Assembly
Meanwhile, according to the proposals of the Cabinet Mission, the election to the Constituent Assembly was held in which members of both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League were returned. The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies.
However, differences between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League arose on interpretation of “Group Clauses” of the Cabinet Mission.
The British government intervened at this stage and explained to the leaders in London that the contention of the Muslim League was correct. And on December 6, 1946, the British Government published a statement, which for the first time acknowledged the possibility of two Constituent Assemblies and two States.
As a result, when the Constituent Assembly first met on December 9, 1946, it was boycotted by the Muslim League, and it functioned without the participation of the Muslim League.
NATURE OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY’S REPRESENTATION
It is often argued that the Constituent Assembly of India did not represent the masses of India because its representatives were not elected through the universal adult franchise. Rather they were indirectly elected by the restricted adult franchise confined to the elite sections of society – the educated and tax payers.
According to Granville Austin the reasons for the restricted franchise and indirect election to the Constituent Assembly members were spelled by the Cabinet Mission Plan. These were to avoid the cumbersome and slow progress in the process of Constitution making.
The Cabinet Mission provided for the indirect election to the Constituent Assembly by the elected members of the provincial legislature. The Indian National Congress agreed to this proposal of the Cabinet Mission forsaking the claim of adult franchise to hold election to the Constituent Assembly.
Despite having been elected through the restricted adult franchise, the Constituent Assembly represented different shades of opinions and religious communities of India. Austin observed that though there was a majority of the Indian National Congress in the Constituent Assembly, it had an “unwritten and unquestioned belief” that the Indian National Congress should represent social and ideological diversity.
There was also its “deliberate policy” that the representatives of various minority communities and viewpoints should be represented in the Constituent Assembly. The Constituent Assembly consisted of members with different ideological orientations, and three religious communities -Sikhs, Muslims and General (Hindus and all other communities like the Anglo-Indians, Parsis, etc).
In words of K. Santaram “There was hardly any shade of opinion not represented in the Assembly”. Majority of the Constituent Assembly members belonged to the Indian National Congress. It also included more than a dozen non-Indian National Congress members.
Some of these were A.K. Ayyer, H.N. Kunjru, N.G. Ayyanger, S.P. Mukherjee and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. S.P. Mookerji represented the Hindu Mahasabha.
The Constituent Assembly included representatives from the Princely States as well. It needs to be underscored that Dr. Ambedkar was initially elected to the Constituent Assembly from Bengal as member of the Scheduled Caste Federation. But he lost this seat due to the partition of Bengal and was re-elected by the Bombay Indian National Congress (as a non-Indian National Congress candidate) at the request of the Indian National Congress High Command.
The Constituent Assembly sought to address concerns of every person irrespective of their social and cultural orientations. Before incorporating a provision in the constitution, it held elaborate deliberations. Thus, the members of the Constituent Assembly could overcome the limitations of having been elected by the restricted franchise.
The Constituent Assembly sought to accommodate universal values of democracy. The Constituent Assembly adopted several provisions from different constitutions of world and adapted them to the needs of India. In fact, Austin argues that while incorporating different provisions in the Constitution including those which were borrowed from other countries the Constituent Assembly adopted “two wholly Indian concepts” of resolving differences among its members, i.e., consensus and accommodation.
Most members of the Constituent Assembly participated in its proceedings. But these were twenty individuals who played the most influential role in the Assembly.
Some of them were Rajendra Prasad, Maulan Azad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Govind Ballabh Pant, P. Sitaramayya, A.K. Ayyar, N.G. Ayyangar, K.M. Munshi, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Satyanarayan Sinha. Though the Constituent Assembly was the sole forum where deliberations took place, yet the deliberations took place in coordination of three bodies – the Constituent Assembly, the Indian National Congress Party, and the interim government.
Some members of the Constituent Assembly were also members of other bodies at the same time. Austin said that “an oligarchy” of four – Nehru, Patel, Prasad and Azad had enjoyed unquestioned honour and prestige in the Assembly. They dominated the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly.Some of these were simultaneously in the government, Indian National Congress Party and the Constituent Assembly.
Prasad was President of Indian National Congress before becoming the President of the Constituent Assembly. Patel and Nehru were Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister respectively at the same time. They were part of the inner circles of the committees of the Constituent Assembly.
The Constitution Drafting Committee meticulously incorporated in the draft constitution the decisions of the Constituent Assembly. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, chairman of the Drafting Committee played the leading role in drafting of the Constitution.
Acknowledging the pivotal role of Dr. Ambedkar, T.T. Krishnamachari, a member of the Drafting Committee, said in one of his speeches: “The House is perhaps aware that out of the seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the house and was replaced. One had died and was not replaced. One was away in America and his place was not filled up, and another person was engaged in State Affairs, and there was a void to that extent. One or two people were far away from Delhi and perhaps reasons of health did not permit them to attend. So it happened ultimately that the burden of drafting this constitution fell upon Dr. Ambedkar and I have no doubt that we are grateful to him for having achieved this task in a manner which is undoubtedly commendable.”
Dr. Ambedkar on his part “gave much of credit” to S.N. Mukerjee – B.N. Rau’s and Ambedkar’s assistant, the Drafting Officer of the Assembly, “for the careful wording of the Constitution”.
THE ROLE OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY IN THE MAKING OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION 1946-1949
The inaugural session of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9 December 1946. It was supposed to be attended by all 296 members but only 207 members could attend it because the Muslim League members absented from it.
As stated earlier, they had boycotted the Constituent Assembly. In this meeting, Acharya J.B. Kripalani requested Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha to be the temporary chairman of the House. The members passed a resolution on 10 December 1946 for election of a permanent chairman, and on 11 December 1946, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the permanent Chairman of the Constituent Assembly.
The Constituent Assembly divided its work among different committees for its smooth functioning. Some of the important committees were:
(a) Union Power Committee. It was chaired by Jawaharlal Nehru and had nine members;
(b) Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities. It had 54 members and Sardar Ballabh bhai Patel was its chairman;
(c) Steering Committee and its 3 members which included Dr. K.M. Munshi (chairman), Gopalaswami Iyangar and Bhagwan Das;
(d) Provincial Constitution Committee. It had 25 members with Sardar Patel as its chairman;
(e) Committee on Union Constitution. It had 15 members with Jawahalal Nehru as its chairman.
After discussing the reports of these committees, the Constituent Assembly appointed a Drafting Committee on 29 August 1947 under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedakar. The draft was prepared by Sir B.N. Rau, Advisor to the Constituent Assembly.
A 7-member Committee was constituted to examine the draft. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who was Law Minister as well as chairman of the Drafting Committee piloted the draft in the Assembly. Dr. Ambedkar presented “Draft Constitution of India”. The “Draft Constitution” was published in February, 1948.
It was discussed by the Constituent Assembly clause by in its several sessions and was completed by October 17, 1949. This discussion was known as the second reading. The Constituent Assembly again met on 14 November 1949 to discuss the draft further or to give it a third reading.
It was finalised on 26 November 1949 after receiving the signature of the President of the Constituent Assembly. But it was January 26, 1950 which became the date of commencement of the Constitution.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUION
The Indian Constitution has some salient features. These features give Indian Constitution a distinct identity. It is based on the features of different constitutions of the world. In the words of Dr. Ambedkar, The Indian constitution was prepared “after ransacking all the known Constitutions of the world”.
The chapter on Fundamental Rights is based on the American Constitution; the Parliamentary System has been adopted from the British Constitution; the Directive Principles of State Policy have been adopted from the constitution of Ireland; the Emergency provisions are based on the Constitution of Weimar (Germany) and Government of India Act, 1935.
The features which have been borrowed from other Constitutions have been modified in the light of the needs of our country. It is the longest written constitution. At the time of its formation, the constitution of India had 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. It ensures both Justiciable and Non-Justiciable Rights: Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of the State Policy.The constituent makers preferred universal adult franchise over the separate electorates.
Universal Adult Suffrage and Abolition of the Separate Electorate
After debating its draft list of Fundamental rights the Sub-Committee on Fundamental Rights did not recommend inclusion of all of them in the section III of the Constitution as the Fundamental Rights. Instead, it suggested that these should be incorporated in other places in the Constitution.
One such example is that of the Universal suffrage, and Secrete and periodic elections. The sub Committee agreed unanimously in favour of the Universal suffrage but suggested that it should not be part of the Fundamental Rights.
Accordingly, it was placed in the Article 326 of the Part XV on election.The word “universal”, however, is missing from the Article 326. But the fact that every adult citizen of the country is entitled to vote makes it practically a universal adult franchise.
In fact, before Indians really got the right to universal adult franchise, the prominent leaders of the Indian National movement strove for the abolition of the separate electorate in favour of the joint electorate.
The British had sought to continue separate electorate in India since the Morley-Minto reforms, 1909 till the Communal Award of 1932 in the Constitution.
The Communal Award aimed to accord separate electorate for Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians. It also provided for seats for the Depressed Classes which were to be filled in elections from special constituencies. In such constituencies only the depressed classes could vote.
In addition, the depressed classes were also entitled to vote in general constituencies. Gandhi opposed the recommendation of the notion of separate electorate for the depressed classes. In opposition to the proposal for separate electorate, he set on fast unto death in September 1932. Gandhi’s fast evoked opposition from Ambedkar. However, both Gandhi and Ambedkar reached compromise in Poona Pact.
According to the Poona Pact, seats were reserved for the depressed classes in the general constituencies. This resulted in the abolition of the separate electorate.The abolition of separate electorate got reflected in the reservation of seats in the legislative bodies Constitution.
CONCLUSION
The making of Indian Constitution largely consisted of two phases – 1858 to 1935 and 1946 to 1949. With the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown, the British government introduced different elements of governance through different Acts.
These also included the elements of representation of Indians in the institutions of governance. The motive of the British to introduce them was to serve their colonial interests rather than to provide democratic rights to them. The provision for communal representation introduced through the Morley-Minto Reforms in 1909 and through the Communal Award in 1932 was opposed by the leaders of the Indian National Movement.
Gandhi’s fast resulted in the Poona Pact abolishing the separate electorate and in giving the reservation to the depressed classes in the provincial legislature. After the Indian National Congress emphasized the need for making of a Constitution of India by their own Constitient Assembly, the changed political situation following the Second World War and change of government in Britain, the British reluctantly realized the urgency for establishment of the Constituent Assembly of India for Indians.
The Constituent Assembly which was set up following the recommendations of the Cabinet Mission Plan was elected through the restricted adult franchise by the provincial assemblies. Despite having elected by the privileged sections of the society, the Constituent Assembly represented different shades of opinions and ideologies.
It also represented different social groups of India. The Constituent Assembly discussed all issues thoroughly before reaching decision on them. The decision and suggestions of different sub-Committees of the Constituent Assembly were finally incorporated in the Constitution of India.
The Constitution of India is a document which provides a vision for social change. The Constitution is an embodiment of principles of liberal democracy and secularism, with some elements of social democracy. It ensures protection of cultural, linguistic and religious rights of individuals and communities.