Intellectual Property and India:- A Complete Coverage.
Background :- Recently Government of India released Indian Intellectual Property Panorama which is a single window interface for information on Intellectual Property and guidance on leveraging it for competitive advantage.The Indian IP Panorama is a customized version of IP Panorama Multimedia toolkit, developed by World Intellectual Property Organization, Korean Intellectual Property Office and Korea Invention Promotion Association .
The toolkit has been adapted to cater to SMEs and start-ups, especially in the ICT sector of India, based on an agreement signed between WIPO and DeitY. The Indian IP Panorama is thus a customized version of WIPO’s original product and is in accordance with Indian IP laws, standards, challenges and needs of the Indian ICT sector.
Modules Under the Toolkit:-
- “Importance of IP for SMEs”,
- “Trademark”,
- “Industrial design”,
- “Invention and Patent” and
- “Patent Information”
What is Intellectual Property:-
The concept of intellectual property (IP) will be understood better if we understand what is meant by the term property. To a lay person property means some material object belonging to a particular person. The concept of ownership is critical to the concept of property. Ownership means the right to possess, use and dispose of the property and exclude the others. If a society does not recognise ownership, it will have no concept of property. In the legal sense, property refers to the bundle of rights that the law confers on a person by virtue of the ownership and possession of an object.
However, a material object under one’s possession may not amount to much as property if it does not become a resource to satisfy some human want or need. Man by exertion of his intellect, either in the form of ideas or technology, converts a natural resource into something of utility, making it an item of property.
Two factors significantly influence the value of an object as property. The first is scarcity, which refers to its availability in relation to the need. The scarcer is a thing in relation to the demand for it, the higher is its value. The second important factor influencing the value of an object is the knowledge of its use or uses. The higher the value of an object, the more zealously it is guarded as a ‘property’.
What rights constitute the bundle of rights that are termed as property?
These rights deal with various aspects of the relationship between persons and their property, such as: ownership and possession; use and enjoyment of the fruits of its application; exclusion of others from use and application of the property; and transfer of rights in the property.
The property can relate to a tangible thing e.g. land or buildings, or to an intangible thing e.g. a copyright. In the former case they are referred to as tangible or corporeal property, in the latter case they are known as intangible or incorporeal property.
Tangible property has a big advantage over intangible property: the fact of possession of a physical object by the owner ensures that any other person is excluded from using it. It is not so with the creations of the mind, say, an invention or a book which can be reproduced otherwise.
This brings us to the concept of intellectual property. It is simply the property created by the application of human mind. It is non-physical (intangible) and it derives its value from idea(s).There is no uniform definition of IP.
The domain of IP is expanding fast as knowledge and information become key drivers of techno-economic growth and of societal progress in general.IP is a dynamic area; as science & technology make rapid advances, and as competition for markets becomes ever more fierce, human ingenuity is throwing up ever new ideas and newer products.
Newer areas are emerging with claims for recognition as IP. They have to be accommodated as IP either in one of the existing categories or in new categories that have to be created. Thus while copyright originally was concerned with works of literature and artistic works gradually its scope expanded to cover works of drama, music, photography, cinematography, audio-visual recordings, performances, broadcasts and now computer programmes.
Among the successful new categories to be recognised as entitled to the status of IP are: ‘Geographical Indications’ which combine in themselves appellations of origin and indication of source and accord special treatment to wines and spirits; lay out design (topography) of integrated circuits, which has been recognised as an independent form of IP under the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Genetic resources, and traditional knowledge and folklore have made strong claims for protection as IP. Galloping advances in the realm of internet and convergence may be the harbinger of new forms of IP.
Types of IP :-
IP has been generally divided into two main branches viz., (a) Industrial Property, and (b) Copyright.
Industrial property consists of rights relating to inventions, trade marks, industrial designs and geographical indications. Copyright protects rights related to creation of human mind in the fields of literature, scientific, music, art and audio-visual works, etc. Related rights protect performances of performing artists, phonograms and broadcasts. Related rights and neighbouring rights are terms used interchangeably.
The TRIPS Agreement of the WTO recognises seven categories of intellectual property rights (IPRs), which had already been enshrined in various treaties administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) since the late 19th century:-
i) Copyright and Related Rights
ii) Trade marks, Trade names and Service marks
iii) Geographical Indications
iv) Industrial Designs
v) Patents
vi) Layout Designs of Integrated Circuits
vii) Undisclosed Information
Copyright is granted in respect of original literary, musical, artistic or audio-visual works – the creations of authors, playwrights, composers, artists, film makers. The rights under copyright include: rights of reproduction, communication to the public, adaptation and translation of work.
Copyright is now spoken together with the related or neighbouring rights as one category. Though originality in expression is a requirement for copyright, the quality of the works is not an issue at all. It is to be noted that though the copyright subsists in works which are the creation of ideas, it is not the idea that the copyright protects, but merely the expression of the idea as fixed in a particular form.
If an author thinks up the plot of a story, it is not the idea of the plot that is entitled for protection under a copyright but only the written form of the story flowing from the idea. Any other person can come up with a differently written story on the same idea and have a valid claim for a copyright over it. If a painter has a copyright in a painting which depicts sunrise no one else can legally copy that painting without his / her permission.
However, there is no copyright in the idea of sunrise and anybody is free to paint sunrise as per his / her own imagination, and everyone will be entitled to copyright in one’s own creation. The copyright is in the painting, not in the idea of sunrise. Copyright is an inherent right that commences since the completion of the work as an expression of the idea. Copyright comes with the doctrine of ‘fair use’, which includes use of the work for purposes of criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching and education, scholarship and research. Fair use does not constitute infringement.
We may also remember that unlike patents or registered designs, copyright confers no monopoly rights. In fact if two persons can produce precisely similar work demonstrably working independently of each other, each one will have the legal right to his / her own creation. It should be reiterated that registration is not required for a work to be protected. A copyright work is protected from its creation.
Trade marks and service marks are distinctive symbols, signs, logos that help the consumer to distinguish between competing goods or services and are a major part of the goodwill a company enjoys in the trade. A trade name is the name of an enterprise, which also individualises the enterprise in the minds of the customers. They are therefore protected as IP.
Thus a trade mark is a sign that individualises the goods of a given enterprise and distinguishes them from the goods of its competitors. You may be quite familiar with the distinctive marks of Pepsi-Cola and Coca-Cola Companies. Similarly in passenger cars a characteristic star in front, or a characteristic treelike T, enclosed in an ellipse and displayed in the front and the rear of a vehicle immediately proclaims that the first vehicle is from the Mercedes and the second one is from the Tatas stable. Trade marks invariably come to symbolise quality of goods or services in the customer’s mind. However, there is no requirement in law that trade mark has to meet any quality standards. If quality is not maintained, customers will shift to another brand. A trade mark is required to be distinctive and not deceptive. If you market goods of fake leather under the trade mark ‘Realeather’ you will be taken in by a deceptive trademark.
A geographical indication (GI) is a sign used on goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation that are due solely to the place of origin e.g. its specific climate, soil or method of production. Such goods enjoy an advantage over competing goods solely because of their geographical origin, which thus becomes a kind of IP and is protected. A GI is different from a trade mark. A trade mark is a sign that distinguishes the product and services of an enterprise from those of another. The owner of a trade mark is entitled to exclude others from using the trade mark. A GI merely tells that a product is produced in a certain place and has certain characteristics which are due to the place of production like specific soil, or climate or method of production. It can be used by all producers who make their products in a place designated by the GI and share the same qualities. Some best known examples of GI are: Champagne (special kind of sparkling wine originating in the French region of that name; Kolhapuri chappals from Kolhapur, India).
The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property uses two terms in the context of geographical indication: appellation of origin and indication of source. Indication of source on a product merely indicates that the product originates in the place indicated. Appellation of origin indicates not only the place of origin but also the essential quality link between the product and the area of its origin. Protection of GI can be done in many ways: through a sui generis legislation or through decrees, or through registration or through reliance on tort of ‘passing off’ (which basically says that unfair trade practices should not be used). GI can also be protected by collective marks belonging to a group of traders or producers or a certification trade mark that does not belong to any one; the understanding for its registration is that anyone who meets the specified conditions can use it.
An industrial design is the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article; it may consist of three dimensional features such as shape or surface, or of two-dimensional features such as patterns, lines or colour. The design serves as a tool for product differentiation and lures customers by enhanced visual appeal. Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of products of industry or handicraft: from watches, jewellery, fashion and other luxury items to industrial and medical implements; from houseware, furniture, electrical appliances to vehicles and architectural structures; from practical goods and textile designs to leisure items such as toys.
An industrial design is distinguished from trade mark primarily because it is constituted by the appearance of a product, which is not necessarily distinctive, whereas a trade mark is necessarily to be distinctive to serve as a sign for product differentiation. The functions of, and the justification for protecting industrial designs and trade marks are quite different. Designs must relate to the appearance of the object which is not determined by technical or functional necessity. Designs enhance the visual appeal and add to the commercial value of the product; they also facilitate the marketing and commercialisation of the product. For registration a design needs to be new and original, though the notion of these qualities may vary from country to country. In certain conditions, an industrial design can be protected under copyright law or the law against unfair competition.
A patent is a statutory right granted for a limited period to an inventor in respect of an invention to exclude any other person from manufacturing, using or selling the patented product or from using the patented process, without due permission. Under the TRIPS Agreement of the WTO, inventions in all fields of technology, whether products or processes are patentable if they meet the three criteria of novelty, involving an inventive step and being capable of industrial application. Patents are one of the oldest forms of IP protection.
Layout design (topography) of integrated circuits is a relatively new area in IP which has appeared with computer technology and has acquired importance as the technology makes rapid advances. The programming instructions on a computer chip are implemented through a circuitry printed on semiconductor layers. The design of circuitry on the chip requires great investment of knowledge, skills and capital and this needs to be protected as IP. The right in topography aims to prevent copying of the layout design but reverse engineering to come up with improved design is regarded as fair. It may also be noted that while for claiming a patent an invention is required to meet the criteria both of novelty and inventive step, a layout design is only required to be original. Protection of layout design confers no monopoly right; independent development of a design, identical with a protected design is permitted.
Undisclosed information gets recognition as a kind of IP that needs to be protected under the TRIPS Agreement. Earlier to it, the WIPO treaty (1967) and the Paris Convention recognised unfair competition as a part of IP. Unfair competition includes all acts contrary to honest practices in industrial or commercial matters; undisclosed information restricts honest practices to protection of trade secrets. The TRIPs Agreement (Article 40) does refer to the control of Anti-Competitive Practices in Contractual Licences; the Agreement also empowers member-States to make in their national legislation suitable provisions to prevent abuse of IPRs.
The intellectual property thus vests in a creation of human mind involving knowledge, labour and skill. It is the result of sustained intellectual application and efforts of inventors, authors and other creative persons, including first adapters and is a powerful factor of production and wealth generation in a modern economy. The IP is a significant factor in gaining competitive advantage over rivals in the trade and industry as the entire idea of IP is to protect the owner against its unlawful use by any person or party offering same or similar products or services.
IPRs, as their exercise has evolved in practice, can secure for the owner a broad range of advantages depending on the national law; for example, IPRs can effectively block imports or exports of relevant goods, or they can be used to divide markets, or restrict movement of goods produced by an enterprise from one territory to another. To fully comprehend the consequences of a national legislation in matters of IPR, it is important to grasp the purpose the law seeks to serve by creating these private rights in property. The chain of production to distribution of goods involves the following major steps: manufacture; first sale by the manufacturer; subsequent sales; exports/imports; use, other dealings. It is for the state to decide in which steps it should intervene to grant exclusive rights to the owner to ensure just reward for creative activity and best techno-economic returns for the State and the society.
A point to appreciate here is that IP is concerned with the human capacity to produce something new and offer it for public use. The property does not lie in the thing so produced and offered but in the owner’s rights over the creation of his/her intellect. This intellectual property is intangible, and though in each case it is associated with a tangible object, it is independent of the object itself. Again, what IP protects is the use or value of ideas and not the abstract ideas themselves; there are no rights, hence no property, over the ideas per se.
Should Intellectual Property be protected ?
More often , it is argued that if intellectuals deliberations and manifestations are protected through Laws and conventions , it harms the creativity of human genius.This line of argument is often found in the context of debate between “Open source” vs “Licensed products ” (For example – Linus Operating system VS Microsoft ).
Hence to understand the rationale behind the rights is important.
Just as one goes back to the concept of ‘property’ to appreciate better the meaning of intellectual property, one may look to the justifications advanced for protection of tangible property to appreciate the justification for IP. Within the capitalist system such justification comes from two angles: the labour justification and the personality justification.
The labour justification was propounded by Locke who viewed the labour of an individual as belonging to the individual and when one takes from the State what Nature has provided to it – some ‘goods’ akin to ‘commons’ – and mixes one’s labour with it, one creates property for one self.
Labour adds value to the goods and converts ‘commons’ into property. The creation of social value both by converting commons into goods and adding more value to goods by investment of labour deserves to be rewarded to encourage people to be innovative as also to perform better.
In moving from the tangible property to the intellectual property, both the views – rewarding innovation as well as rewarding value creation – have relevance. The society has to encourage people to strive to be innovative and come up with creative solutions to generate wealth and welfare as also to add value to existing goods and services.
Locke’s idea of occurrence of commons in abundance in the primitive stage is apt in the consideration of intellectual property because ideas are always around us in abundance; this is the public domain. The IPRs do not appropriate the ‘public domain’ – the ‘commons’ are no body’s private property. The IP law takes care of it by ensuring that no protection is given to either the everyday ideas, or highly extraordinary ideas like advances in mathematics. The IP law takes care that nobody unduly appropriates ‘public domain’ by ensuring that the rights are available only for a limited period after which the intellectual creation comes to the public domain.
Lets draw the attention to a rather subtle parallel between the fields of tangible property and the intangible intellectual property. In the field of tangible property the rights of slaves as generators of property were not recognised. Even now the labour of housewife fetches no remuneration, and remains unrecognised as generator of wealth. Similarly, in the realm of IP the traditional knowledge and folklore, is yet to gain solid recognition as IP, and enjoys no commensurate protection as the creation of knowledge, skills and ideas, developed and perfected by local communities over centuries. This only confirms the view that property laws, whether for the tangible property or the intellectual property reflect power relations in society.
The justification for IP from the ‘personality’ angle regards property as a mechanism of expression of one’s persona. Hegel is the main proponent of this view: property is the embodiment of personality. Thus property is a very personal and private thing and needs to be protected. In the case of the intellectual property, however, this justification may apply in varying degrees to subject matters of different categories of IP. While products of art, music and literature and trade marks may reflect the personality of their creator to a remarkable degree, the inventions or engineering designs may not really support the personality thesis.
A major recognition for the personality justification of property is seen in the moral rights under the copyright law. These are deemed to be the inalienable rights of the author to safeguard the integrity of the work against any change that would damage the author’s reputation or the message of the work.
Clearly a completely satisfactory rationale for intellectual property protection is not available either from the labour angle or the personality angle. Different categories of IP would appear to derive different degrees of justification from different angles. Patents and industrial designs would be better supported from the labour point of view; copyrights and trade marks would find better justification from the personality angle. The entire domain of the IP, however, is served better when both the views are taken together as justification for the protection of property.
IPRs are based on three underlying premises:-
1. Creative activity culminating in IP can be increased by measures aimed to encourage it. Also, it will not be generated in economically adequate quantity for public use without economic incentives.
2. Grant of legal monopoly powers, even if for a limited period is the only way to ensure adequate economic benefits as just reward for the creation of IP.
3. The provisions of the global IP regime ensure just economic returns to the creation of IP while safeguarding the interest of other entrepreneurs and the society in general.
Constitution of India and IPR :-
The Constitution of India makes no specific mention of intellectual property. Property in the Constitution generally means tangible property. However, IP as a form of property can be put under Article 300A which deals with property and be entitled to a legal right.
Experts have spotted possibilities of a conflict between the IP, specially the copyright, and the constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech and expression. The Courts have zealously upheld this fundamental freedom. In a case of any restriction on speech and expression, the perspective of the rights of viewers and listeners, is likely to get precedence over the perspective of the rights of broadcasters. Any rights (monopolies) that undermine the right to freedom of speech and expression may face a challenge.
IP and Indian Scenario :-
The tradition of scholarship and intellectual creativity in India goes back to a fewmillennia. Yet the concept of Intellectual Property Rights in the modern sense is rathernew and would appear to have no cultural moorings or sanction in our country. Thehistory of intellectual property rights in India backed by enforceable legal provisionsscarcely goes back to 150 years.
IP acts enacted by India :-
1. The Patents Act, 1970, as amended by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 1999, anthe Patents (Amendment) Act, 2002
2. The Copyright Act, 1957 as amended in 1999
3. The Trade marks Act, 1999
4. The Designs Act, 2000
5. The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
6. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2001
7. Integrated Circuit Layout Designs Act, 2000
8. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Major international treaties signed by India :-
1. The Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organisation
2.The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
3.The Berne convention on Protection of Literary and Artistic works
4.Patent cooperation Treay
5.The Geneva Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms againt Unauthorised Duplication of their Phonograms.
6.The Budapest Treaty on the International Reorganition of the Deposit of Micro organisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure
7.The Universal Convention of Copyrights
Emerging Issues in IP :-
The global intellectual property system has constantly to cope with new challenges as on the one hand advances in science and technology give rise to ever new unprecedented issues and, on the other, new, legitimate claims crop up from commercialisation of knowledge embedded in traditional systems. The emergence of information and communication technology (ICT), and biotechnology (BT), the two fields of knowledge which have seen staggering advances at breath-taking pace, has posed new issues before the IP protection system. The progress in these two fields has literally transformed the way one had known the world, transacted business and carried out other activities even only a quarter century ago. Similarly as the conduct of R & D as mega business brought out predatory forays into commercialisation of knowledge embedded in traditional systems and exploitation of cultural heritage of indigenous communities without any share or acknowledgement going to the traditional communities that owned these resources, several issues of ethics and equity have come to the fore.
Summary of Issues :-
- Advances in ICT have changed the way people live, work and conduct business. Reproduction with high fidelity, in very large numbers, has become easy and cheap. It can be done anywhere and transmitted from any where to anywhere on the globe across national boundaries. Enforcing IPR under these circumstances is difficult.
- Multiple user computer systems enable pirated digital works to be used by several persons simultaneously.
- Manipulation of digital works is easy, leading the resulting work to be claimed as new and original.
- Protection of IP over digital products is following two approaches: control of access; metering usage. Protecting integrity of work is an area of concern.
- WIPO through its Digital Agenda is helping in crystallising all issues and evolving their solutions through international consensus.
- A domain name is the address of a website. Disputes arise due to cybersquatting. WIPO is the leading ICANN accredited agency for resolution of domain name disputes.
- Biotechnological processes and products have vast economic potential, and thus they are hot items of IP. It is full of ethical questions and moral debates.
- Access to rich biodiversity and traditional knowledge of developing nations for developing biotechnological processes and products raises questions of ownership and benefit sharing.
- Extension of IP to living things is recent. It raises question of discovery vs invention besides the propriety of appropriating natural living organisms as private property.
- The USPTO (United States Patent and Trademark Office) does not grant patent on a fundamental gene, ESTs (Expressed-sequence tags or SNP) (Single nucleotide polymorphisms,), unless they have a role in human health and a commercial potential.
- Traditional Knowledge covers knowledge of a community to deal with all life situations i.e. its science and technology, agriculture, medicine, biodiversity, folk art and craft, folk music and dance, drama, folk motifs, designs and symbols, in fact all moveable cultural material.
- Traditional Knowledge (TK) and the folk lore, on the one hand, and the IP system on the other, are products of two very different cultural and value systems, one regarding knowledge and folklore as belonging to the community, the other seeing creations of ones own mind and skills as belonging to the individual, as personal property. Areconciliation of the two views is engaging serious attention at the international level with WIPO playing a lead role.
Eight Core Industries to measure Economic growth and other indices : –
The Eight Core Industries comprise nearly 38% of the weight of items included in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP).The combined Index of Eight Core Industries stands at 172.2 in February, 2016, which was 5.7 %higher compared to the index of February, 2015. Its cumulative growth during April to February, 2015-16 was 2.3 %.
- Coal:-Coal production (weight: 4.38%)
- Crude Oil:-Crude Oil production (weight: 5.22%)
- Natural Gas:-The Natural Gas production (weight: 1.71%)
- Refinery Products (93% of Crude Throughput):-Petroleum Refinery production (weight: 5.94%)
- Fertilizers:-Fertilizer production (weight: 1.25%)
- Steel (Alloy + Non-Alloy):-Steel production (weight: 6.68%)
- Cement:-Cement production (weight: 2.41%)
- Electricity:-Electricity generation (weight: 10.32%)
Inclusiveness and Accessibility Index :-
Background :- Government launches ‘Inclusiveness and Accessibility Index’ to mark the next chapter of its flagship Campaign, the ‘Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan’
Accessible India (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan) :-
- DEPwD – Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities , had launched the Accessible India Campaign as a nation-wide flagship campaign for achieving universal accessibility for the PwDs.
- For PwDs , universally is critical for enabling them to gain for equal opportunity and live independently.
- Persons with Disabilities(Equal opportunities, Protection of rights and Full participation ) Act ,1995 under section 44,45,46 categorically provides for non-discrimination in transport and non-discrimination in built environments.
- UN Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (UNCRPD), to which India is a signatory , under article 9 casts obligations on the governments for ensuring the PWDs accessibility to :-
- Information
- Transportation
- Physical Environment
- Communication Technology
- Accessibility to services as well as emergency services
- Keeping this in view and creating India as a more inclusive and accessible society , the Government of India had launched this program.
‘Gram Uday Se Bharat Uday Abhiyan’ (Village Self Governance Campaign)
Starting with Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar’s 125th Birth Anniversary on 14th April 2016 and culminating in Panchayati Raj Day on 24th April 2016, in the period between 14th April to 24th April 2016, the Central Government, in collaboration with States and Panchayats, will organize a ‘Gram Uday Se Bharat Uday Abhiyan’ (Village Self Governance Campaign).
The campaign aims to generate nation-wide efforts to increase social harmony across villages, strengthen Panchayati Raj, promote rural development, and foster farmers’ progress.
A Budget for Groundwater :-
Background :-
The protest by farmers in Chikballapur recently, over the scarcity of drinking water, received extensive news coverage as it halted Bengaluru in its tracks after key highways were blocked. Interestingly, very little of that coverage was devoted to the groundwater crisis that underpins the problem in such regions.
Details :-
Groundwater plays an important role in our lives and India’s economy, but it is disappearing fast. There is mounting evidence that we are extracting more than can be naturally replenished. In the hard-rock aquifers of peninsular India, drilling 800 ft or deeper is becoming the norm. Groundwater-dependent towns and villages spend an increasing fraction of their budgets chasing the water table. Stories abound of farmers spending their life savings or taking loans to drill a borewell, but failing to find water. If we “run out” of groundwater, millions of people will be left without any means to sustain themselves.
Scientific evidence also points to over-exploitation. The Central Ground Water Board classifies all blocks in India based on the fraction of recharge that is extracted and trends in long-term groundwater levels. Since 2004, almost a third of blocks have been classified “over-exploited” or “semi-critical”. If we understand the problem and if the consequences are so severe, why are we unable to address it? The answer lies partly in politics, partly in the invisible nature of groundwater, and partly in our reliance on simple techno-economic fixes.
Flawed regulatory structure
Electricity is supplied to farmers free of cost. This policy made sense when groundwater was abundant in the 1980s. Indeed, it helped millions of farmers escape poverty. But today, where groundwater levels have fallen hundreds of feet below the ground, the subsidy is actually only utilised by the richest farmers who can afford to drill deep. And even so, not all are lucky enough to strike water. Access to groundwater in hard-rock regions has almost become a lottery. Yet in the absence of alternative water sources, charging farmers for electricity is seen as political suicide.
Groundwater is inherently difficult to monitor and control, in part because of its invisibility, which also perpetuates the illusion that each well is independent. The myth is enshrined in Indian groundwater law that allows landowners to extract as much as they want. In reality, not only is groundwater within an aquifer interconnected, but aquifers and rivers are also interconnected. So depleting groundwater means drying rivers. Despite this, groundwater and rivers are regulated by different agencies that do not properly account for the linkages between them, often double counting the quantum of the resource.
Much of the current action on the ground is through techno-economic fixes. These have clear benefits in terms of reducing pumping costs and using local aquifers instead of building big, expensive dams. But what they do not do is create “new” water.
Boosting recharge through rainwater harvesting structures such as small check dams is a popular measure. However, any water that recharges is water that does not flow downstream. Often users located near check dams simply extract more water, while users further downstream wonder why their rivers and tanks are drying up. Another technological solution is to improve efficiency through subsidised drip irrigation or energy-saving pumps. Again, these have often resulted in farmers increasing their irrigation area with no decrease in water extracted. And farmers are not alone; conscientious urban dwellers take pride in reusing wastewater for gardens and parks. But this could result in more wasteful water use, with the additional “wastewater” used in lawns or golf courses where none previously existed.
Science and fairness
Techno-economic fixes do not address the underlying “zero-sum game” nature of water resource use. Ultimately, the water management problem is that of allocating the water available each year among users — both people and the ecosystem. Without understanding how much water is available, how much is being used and by whom, solving India’s water crisis is going to be a non-starter.
The way forward is comprehensive water budgeting, simultaneously in each watershed and the river basin as a whole. Water budgets at the watershed level will inform communities about how much water they have, so it can be equitably shared within communities. Water budgets for the river basin will inform communities how much must be left for downstream users, ensuring that water resources are allocated between communities fairly and transparently.
Given the zero-sum nature of the game and the impossibility of creating “new” water, it is likely that we cannot restore the water balance in severely depleted regions without painful cuts in water use. However, there are some glimmers of hope. Water users everywhere are worried about the disappearing resource and willing to engage. The trick lies in combining technology (low-water-use crops, xeriscaping) and economic incentives that reduce actual water use (“cash-for-blue” schemes) without reducing productivity or quality of life. This needs a strong water governance system based on awareness building, science and a commitment to fairness and sustainability.
ARIES :-
Recently India launched Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES), built with Belgian assistance. It is located in Nainital, Uttarakhand.
Few Facts :-
- ARIES telescope is a joint collaboration between Indian, Russian, and Belgian scientists.
- The telescope is located at Devasthal, Nainital at a height of 2,500 metres.
- It is said that the site was chosen to get a clear view of the sky.
- The high end technology incorporated in the telescope enables it to be operated with the help of remote control from anywhere in the world.
- The telescope will be used in the study and exploration of planets, starts, magnetic field and astronomical debris.
- The scientists will also help in research of the structures of stars and magnetic field structures of stars.
Simultaneous Lok Sabha and Assembly elections :-
Background :-
Recently there has been a report that Government of India . is considering to hold Lok sabha and Assembly election simultaneouly.
Details:-
The decision is also based on the 78th report of the parliamentary standing committee of Law and Justice that had been asked to go into the issue in detail. The report was submitted in December 2015.
- The committee recommended a two-phase election schedule to make the Lok Sabha and Assembly polls coterminous, but had raised uneasiness in different political parties.
- The first general elections to the Lok Sabha was held simultaneously with all State Assemblies in 1951-52. That practice continued in three subsequent general elections held in the years — 1957, 1962 and 1967.
- However, due to the premature dissolution of some Legislative Assemblies in 1968 and 1969, the cycle got disrupted.
- In 1970, the Lok Sabha was itself dissolved prematurely and fresh elections were held in 1971. The term of the fifth Lok Sabha was extended till 1977 under Article 352. After that, the eighth, tenth, fourteenth and fifteenth Lok Sabha could complete their five year terms. The sixth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth ones were dissolved prematurely.
- As a result of premature dissolutions and extension of terms of both the Lok Sabha and various State Assemblies, the last 48 years have seen separate elections to the Lok Sabha and the Assemblies
Skin bank
Recently Karnataka got its first skin bank, the sixth in the country.Doctors hope that the skin bank may help save the lives of countless burn victims, as harvested skin is the best form of “biological dressing” available today.Although artificial skin is available, it is prohibitively expensive. The government has agreed to fund all skin grafts done at the skin bank. A nominal charge may be executed.
Working of the skin bank:
- Like any other organ donation, skin donation needs to be pledged by a living person or needs to be offered for donation by the family soon after death.
- The skin is harvested within 6 hours of death either at hospital or home. The harvesting is done from hidden areas such as the back and the thigh with no bleeding or deformity to the body. The skin donation does not hamper the rituals of last rites.
- The process is fairly simple and takes less than 45 minutes. The donor could be anyone above 16 years of age.
- The donor should not have skin disease or skin cancer and should be negative for HIV and Hepatitis C.
- No blood group matching is required.
- The harvested skin is processed and stored as per international protocol in the skin bank ready for dispensing and safe use in burns care as the best biological dressing. This dressing not only saves the life but also relieves the pain, reduces infection increasing chances of survival significantly, especially when the burn area exceeds 40%.
100% FDI in e-commerce retail
The government has allowed 100% foreign direct investment (FDI) through the automatic route in the marketplace model of e-commerce retailing.
Details:
- However, as per the guidelines issued by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) on FDI in e-commerce, foreign direct investment has not been permitted in inventory-based model.
- According to the guidelines, the e-commerce marketplace may provide support services to sellers in warehousing, and logistics., order fulfilment, call centre, payment collection and other services. However, such entities will not exercise ownership over the inventory.
- According to the guidelines, any warranty/guarantee on goods and services sold will be responsibility of the seller, not the market place operator.
- Also, an e-commerce firm will not be permitted to sell more than 25% of total sales from one vendor or its group companies.
Marketplace Model:-
The marketplace model has been defined as providing an “information technology platform by an e-commerce entity on a digital and electronic network to act as a facilitator between buyer and seller.” Example – Amazon, Flipkart ,Snapdeal etc.
Inventory-based model:
An inventory-led model is defined as one where the e-commerce entity owns the inventory of goods and services and sells directly to consumers. Earlier Flipkart used to be inventory based e-commerce venture.
Implications:
This move could potentially end the discount wars, much to the disappointment of consumers. This is because the rules now prohibit marketplaces from offering discounts and capping total sales originating from a group company or one vendor at 25%. With this, online marketplaces will now not be allowed to directly or indirectly influence pricing of products and services on the platform.This could, however, level the playing field with offline stores, which have witnessed a slump in footfalls corresponding to the increase in e-commerce.
The press note issued by the department of industrial policy and promotion (DIPP) said 100% FDI via the automatic route would be allowed only for e-commerce players under the marketplace model, and not under the inventory led model. This means that companies such as Amazon and Alibaba can set up an online marketplace legally now where sellers can sell their products. But the policy does not allow Amazon or Flipkart to become a seller.
Need of the Policy:-
So far, India has allowed 100% foreign investment in business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce but none in retail e-commerce—i.e., business-to-consumer, or B2C.
- Even so, Indian e-commerce companies such as Flipkart and Snapdeal have been following the marketplace model—which was not defined—and attracting large foreign investments. Marketplaces essentially act as a platform connecting sellers and buyers.
- This had led to allegations from time to time by brick-and-mortar stores that Indian e-commerce companies were flouting existing policy norms to gain an unfair advantage, given that the government does not allow FDI in multi-brand retail companies.
Telecom panel clears entry of virtual operators:-
In order to allow telecom service providers to improve utilisation of their networks, the Telecom Commission has cleared a proposal to allow licensing of virtual network operators (VNOs). These VNOs, after getting a licence for operations, will be able to buy minutes and bytes to offer voice and data services, respectively.
VNO:-
A virtual network operator is akin to a retailer selling products and services of various companies under one roof, and a customer has to pay a single bill for all items purchased.Such an operator will primarily provide various services to end consumers by using the underlying network of a network service operator.
Details:-
- VNOs do not have spectrum of their own for access service, but can provide access services to its own customers through an agreement with the licensed access provider. A VNO leases bandwidth from various telecom operators to provide voice and data services to customers.
- They cannot participate in spectrum auction for access services in their service areas, as they cannot have their own spectrum.
- VNO will be able to invest in setting up mobile towers and other elements in network required for providing services. However, it will not be able to sign deal directly to interconnect infrastructure laid by it with other telecom operator.
- VNO will be able to integrate service and offer it to customer as it wants. There will be no limit on integration and offering of services from licence or government that will be available shortly.
- In case a VNO has partnered with multiple service providers, then it can offer voice call service of one and data service of other player.
Significance of this move:
- The VNO, after obtaining licence from the government for its operations, can function under its own brand offering a plethora of services such as mobile telephony, broadband, wireless hotspots, etc at the last mile and in areas where stressed balance sheets of large telecom companies do not allow them to invest for rolling out infrastructure.
- This would also allow telecom companies to leverage network and spectrum investment made by them, as this move will allow the virtual network operators to invest in setting up almost 70% to 80% of the equipment required to offer communication services. And hence, VNOs would contribute to the efficient use of existing telecommunication infrastructure.
- VNOs may also offer some relief to telecom PSUs, BSNL and MTNL, which have already adopted a revenue-sharing model focusing on reducing capital expenditure.
New Defence Procurement Policy :-
Details:-
- The procurement policy lays the roadmap on how India, the world’s largest arms importer, will acquire defence equipment in the future.
- The new DPP has included a new category to acquire weapons–IDDM (Indigenously Designed, Developed and Manufactured). The IDDM will be the first preferred category of preference.
- The new policy also allows the Defence Acquisition Council to take a “fast-track” route to acquire weapons, something which was limited to only the armed forces till now.
- In a bid to cut down on the time taken for acquisition process, it mandates that all AONs (Acceptance of Necessity) of a particular platform will be valid for only six months as against the 12-month deadline now.
- Also, no AON will be notified until it is accompanied by a finalised RFP (Request for Proposal or tender). This means that the time taken for an RFP is cut down drastically.
- Defence export clearances will now be granted online. The policy will also include ‘Start-up India’ initiative.
- A review of the new DPP will be undertaken after six months.
Recent Posts
- Items provided through FPS
- The scale of rations
- The price of items distributed through FPS across states.
- Kyoto Protocol of 2001
- Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) as well as REDD+ mechanisms proposed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
- United Nations-mandated Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDG)
- Paris Agreement
- Carbon Neutrality
- multistrata agroforestry,
- afforestation,
- tree intercropping,
- biomass production,
- regenerative agriculture,
- conservation agriculture,
- farmland restoration,
- silvopasture,
- tropical-staple tree,
- intercropping,
- bamboo and indigenous tree–based land management.
Petrol in India is cheaper than in countries like Hong Kong, Germany and the UK but costlier than in China, Brazil, Japan, the US, Russia, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, a Bank of Baroda Economics Research report showed.
Rising fuel prices in India have led to considerable debate on which government, state or central, should be lowering their taxes to keep prices under control.
The rise in fuel prices is mainly due to the global price of crude oil (raw material for making petrol and diesel) going up. Further, a stronger dollar has added to the cost of crude oil.
Amongst comparable countries (per capita wise), prices in India are higher than those in Vietnam, Kenya, Ukraine, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Venezuela. Countries that are major oil producers have much lower prices.
In the report, the Philippines has a comparable petrol price but has a per capita income higher than India by over 50 per cent.
Countries which have a lower per capita income like Kenya, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Venezuela have much lower prices of petrol and hence are impacted less than India.
“Therefore there is still a strong case for the government to consider lowering the taxes on fuel to protect the interest of the people,” the report argued.
India is the world’s third-biggest oil consuming and importing nation. It imports 85 per cent of its oil needs and so prices retail fuel at import parity rates.
With the global surge in energy prices, the cost of producing petrol, diesel and other petroleum products also went up for oil companies in India.
They raised petrol and diesel prices by Rs 10 a litre in just over a fortnight beginning March 22 but hit a pause button soon after as the move faced criticism and the opposition parties asked the government to cut taxes instead.
India imports most of its oil from a group of countries called the ‘OPEC +’ (i.e, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Russia, etc), which produces 40% of the world’s crude oil.
As they have the power to dictate fuel supply and prices, their decision of limiting the global supply reduces supply in India, thus raising prices
The government charges about 167% tax (excise) on petrol and 129% on diesel as compared to US (20%), UK (62%), Italy and Germany (65%).
The abominable excise duty is 2/3rd of the cost, and the base price, dealer commission and freight form the rest.
Here is an approximate break-up (in Rs):
a)Base Price | 39 |
b)Freight | 0.34 |
c) Price Charged to Dealers = (a+b) | 39.34 |
d) Excise Duty | 40.17 |
e) Dealer Commission | 4.68 |
f) VAT | 25.35 |
g) Retail Selling Price | 109.54 |
Looked closely, much of the cost of petrol and diesel is due to higher tax rate by govt, specifically excise duty.
So the question is why government is not reducing the prices ?
India, being a developing country, it does require gigantic amount of funding for its infrastructure projects as well as welfare schemes.
However, we as a society is yet to be tax-compliant. Many people evade the direct tax and that’s the reason why govt’s hands are tied. Govt. needs the money to fund various programs and at the same time it is not generating enough revenue from direct taxes.
That’s the reason why, govt is bumping up its revenue through higher indirect taxes such as GST or excise duty as in the case of petrol and diesel.
Direct taxes are progressive as it taxes according to an individuals’ income however indirect tax such as excise duty or GST are regressive in the sense that the poorest of the poor and richest of the rich have to pay the same amount.
Does not matter, if you are an auto-driver or owner of a Mercedes, end of the day both pay the same price for petrol/diesel-that’s why it is regressive in nature.
But unlike direct tax where tax evasion is rampant, indirect tax can not be evaded due to their very nature and as long as huge no of Indians keep evading direct taxes, indirect tax such as excise duty will be difficult for the govt to reduce, because it may reduce the revenue and hamper may programs of the govt.
Globally, around 80% of wastewater flows back into the ecosystem without being treated or reused, according to the United Nations.
This can pose a significant environmental and health threat.
In the absence of cost-effective, sustainable, disruptive water management solutions, about 70% of sewage is discharged untreated into India’s water bodies.
A staggering 21% of diseases are caused by contaminated water in India, according to the World Bank, and one in five children die before their fifth birthday because of poor sanitation and hygiene conditions, according to Startup India.
As we confront these public health challenges emerging out of environmental concerns, expanding the scope of public health/environmental engineering science becomes pivotal.
For India to achieve its sustainable development goals of clean water and sanitation and to address the growing demands for water consumption and preservation of both surface water bodies and groundwater resources, it is essential to find and implement innovative ways of treating wastewater.
It is in this context why the specialised cadre of public health engineers, also known as sanitation engineers or environmental engineers, is best suited to provide the growing urban and rural water supply and to manage solid waste and wastewater.
Traditionally, engineering and public health have been understood as different fields.
Currently in India, civil engineering incorporates a course or two on environmental engineering for students to learn about wastewater management as a part of their pre-service and in-service training.
Most often, civil engineers do not have adequate skills to address public health problems. And public health professionals do not have adequate engineering skills.
India aims to supply 55 litres of water per person per day by 2024 under its Jal Jeevan Mission to install functional household tap connections.
The goal of reaching every rural household with functional tap water can be achieved in a sustainable and resilient manner only if the cadre of public health engineers is expanded and strengthened.
In India, public health engineering is executed by the Public Works Department or by health officials.
This differs from international trends. To manage a wastewater treatment plant in Europe, for example, a candidate must specialise in wastewater engineering.
Furthermore, public health engineering should be developed as an interdisciplinary field. Engineers can significantly contribute to public health in defining what is possible, identifying limitations, and shaping workable solutions with a problem-solving approach.
Similarly, public health professionals can contribute to engineering through well-researched understanding of health issues, measured risks and how course correction can be initiated.
Once both meet, a public health engineer can identify a health risk, work on developing concrete solutions such as new health and safety practices or specialised equipment, in order to correct the safety concern..
There is no doubt that the majority of diseases are water-related, transmitted through consumption of contaminated water, vectors breeding in stagnated water, or lack of adequate quantity of good quality water for proper personal hygiene.
Diseases cannot be contained unless we provide good quality and adequate quantity of water. Most of the world’s diseases can be prevented by considering this.
Training our young minds towards creating sustainable water management systems would be the first step.
Currently, institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras (IIT-M) are considering initiating public health engineering as a separate discipline.
To leverage this opportunity even further, India needs to scale up in the same direction.
Consider this hypothetical situation: Rajalakshmi, from a remote Karnataka village spots a business opportunity.
She knows that flowers, discarded in the thousands by temples can be handcrafted into incense sticks.
She wants to find a market for the product and hopefully, employ some people to help her. Soon enough though, she discovers that starting a business is a herculean task for a person like her.
There is a laborious process of rules and regulations to go through, bribes to pay on the way and no actual means to transport her product to its market.
After making her first batch of agarbathis and taking it to Bengaluru by bus, she decides the venture is not easy and gives up.
On the flipside of this is a young entrepreneur in Bengaluru. Let’s call him Deepak. He wants to start an internet-based business selling sustainably made agarbathis.
He has no trouble getting investors and to mobilise supply chains. His paperwork is over in a matter of days and his business is set up quickly and ready to grow.
Never mind that the business is built on aggregation of small sellers who will not see half the profit .
Is this scenario really all that hypothetical or emblematic of how we think about entrepreneurship in India?
Between our national obsession with unicorns on one side and glorifying the person running a pakora stall for survival as an example of viable entrepreneurship on the other, is the middle ground in entrepreneurship—a space that should have seen millions of thriving small and medium businesses, but remains so sparsely occupied that you could almost miss it.
If we are to achieve meaningful economic growth in our country, we need to incorporate, in our national conversation on entrepreneurship, ways of addressing the missing middle.
Spread out across India’s small towns and cities, this is a class of entrepreneurs that have been hit by a triple wave over the last five years, buffeted first by the inadvertent fallout of demonetization, being unprepared for GST, and then by the endless pain of the covid-19 pandemic.
As we finally appear to be reaching some level of normality, now is the opportune time to identify the kind of industries that make up this layer, the opportunities they should be afforded, and the best ways to scale up their functioning in the shortest time frame.
But, why pay so much attention to these industries when we should be celebrating, as we do, our booming startup space?
It is indeed true that India has the third largest number of unicorns in the world now, adding 42 in 2021 alone. Braving all the disruptions of the pandemic, it was a year in which Indian startups raised $24.1 billion in equity investments, according to a NASSCOM-Zinnov report last year.
However, this is a story of lopsided growth.
The cities of Bengaluru, Delhi/NCR, and Mumbai together claim three-fourths of these startup deals while emerging hubs like Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, and Jaipur account for the rest.
This leap in the startup space has created 6.6 lakh direct jobs and a few million indirect jobs. Is that good enough for a country that sends 12 million fresh graduates to its workforce every year?
It doesn’t even make a dent on arguably our biggest unemployment in recent history—in April 2020 when the country shutdown to battle covid-19.
Technology-intensive start-ups are constrained in their ability to create jobs—and hybrid work models and artificial intelligence (AI) have further accelerated unemployment.
What we need to focus on, therefore, is the labour-intensive micro, small and medium enterprise (MSME). Here, we begin to get to a definitional notion of what we called the mundane middle and the problems it currently faces.
India has an estimated 63 million enterprises. But, out of 100 companies, 95 are micro enterprises—employing less than five people, four are small to medium and barely one is large.
The questions to ask are: why are Indian MSMEs failing to grow from micro to small and medium and then be spurred on to make the leap into large companies?
At the Global Alliance for Mass Entrepreneurship (GAME), we have advocated for a National Mission for Mass Entrepreneurship, the need for which is more pronounced now than ever before.
Whenever India has worked to achieve a significant economic milestone in a limited span of time, it has worked best in mission mode. Think of the Green Revolution or Operation Flood.
From across various states, there are enough examples of approaches that work to catalyse mass entrepreneurship.
The introduction of entrepreneurship mindset curriculum (EMC) in schools through alliance mode of working by a number of agencies has shown significant improvement in academic and life outcomes.
Through creative teaching methods, students are encouraged to inculcate 21st century skills like creativity, problem solving, critical thinking and leadership which are not only foundational for entrepreneurship but essential to thrive in our complex world.
Udhyam Learning Foundation has been involved with the Government of Delhi since 2018 to help young people across over 1,000 schools to develop an entrepreneurial mindset.
One pilot programme introduced the concept of ‘seed money’ and saw 41 students turn their ideas into profit-making ventures. Other programmes teach qualities like grit and resourcefulness.
If you think these are isolated examples, consider some larger data trends.
The Observer Research Foundation and The World Economic Forum released the Young India and Work: A Survey of Youth Aspirations in 2018.
When asked which type of work arrangement they prefer, 49% of the youth surveyed said they prefer a job in the public sector.
However, 38% selected self-employment as an entrepreneur as their ideal type of job. The spirit of entrepreneurship is latent and waiting to be unleashed.
The same can be said for building networks of successful women entrepreneurs—so crucial when the participation of women in the Indian economy has declined to an abysmal 20%.
The majority of India’s 63 million firms are informal —fewer than 20% are registered for GST.
Research shows that companies that start out as formal enterprises become two-three times more productive than a similar informal business.
So why do firms prefer to be informal? In most cases, it’s because of the sheer cost and difficulty of complying with the different regulations.
We have academia and non-profits working as ecosystem enablers providing insights and evidence-based models for growth. We have large private corporations and philanthropic and funding agencies ready to invest.
It should be in the scope of a National Mass Entrepreneurship Mission to bring all of them together to work in mission mode so that the gap between thought leadership and action can finally be bridged.
Heat wave is a condition of air temperature which becomes fatal to human body when exposed. Often times, it is defined based on the temperature thresholds over a region in terms of actual temperature or its departure from normal.
Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 400C or more for Plains and at least 300C or more for Hilly regions.
a) Based on Departure from Normal
Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.50C to 6.40C
Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.40C
b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature
Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 450C
Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥470C
If above criteria met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological sub-division for at least two consecutive days and it declared on the second day
It is occurring mainly during March to June and in some rare cases even in July. The peak month of the heat wave over India is May.
Heat wave generally occurs over plains of northwest India, Central, East & north Peninsular India during March to June.
It covers Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra & Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telengana.
Sometimes it occurs over Tamilnadu & Kerala also.
Heat waves adversely affect human and animal lives.
However, maximum temperatures more than 45°C observed mainly over Rajasthan and Vidarbha region in month of May.
a. Transportation / Prevalence of hot dry air over a region (There should be a region of warm dry air and appropriate flow pattern for transporting hot air over the region).
b. Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere (As the presence of moisture restricts the temperature rise).
c. The sky should be practically cloudless (To allow maximum insulation over the region).
d. Large amplitude anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
Heat waves generally develop over Northwest India and spread gradually eastwards & southwards but not westwards (since the prevailing winds during the season are westerly to northwesterly).
The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
1. Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by fever below 39*C i.e.102*F.
2. Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating.
3. Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium, seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition.
Norman Borlaug and MS Swaminathan in a wheat field in north India in March 1964
Political independence does not have much meaning without economic independence.
One of the important indicators of economic independence is self-sufficiency in food grain production.
The overall food grain scenario in India has undergone a drastic transformation in the last 75 years.
India was a food-deficit country on the eve of Independence. It had to import foodgrains to feed its people.
The situation became more acute during the 1960s. The imported food had to be sent to households within the shortest possible time.
The situation was referred to as ‘ship to mouth’.
Presently, Food Corporation of India (FCI) godowns are overflowing with food grain stocks and the Union government is unable to ensure remunerative price to the farmers for their produce.
This transformation, however, was not smooth.
In the 1960s, it was disgraceful, but unavoidable for the Prime Minister of India to go to foreign countries with a begging bowl.
To avoid such situations, the government motivated agricultural scientists to make India self-sufficient in food grain production.
As a result, high-yield varieties (HYV) were developed. The combination of seeds, water and fertiliser gave a boost to food grain production in the country which is generally referred to as the Green Revolution.
The impact of the Green Revolution, however, was confined to a few areas like Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh in the north and (unified) Andhra Pradesh in the south.
Most of the remaining areas were deficit in food grain production.
Therefore the Union government had to procure food grain from surplus states to distribute it among deficit ones.
At the time, farmers in the surplus states viewed procurement as a tax as they were prevented from selling their surplus foodgrains at high prices in the deficit states.
As production of food grains increased, there was decentralisation of procurement. State governments were permitted to procure grain to meet their requirement.
The distribution of food grains was left to the concerned state governments.
Kerala, for instance, was totally a deficit state and had to adopt a distribution policy which was almost universal in nature.
Some states adopted a vigorous public distribution system (PDS) policy.
It is not out of place to narrate an interesting incident regarding food grain distribution in Andhra Pradesh. The Government of Andhra Pradesh in the early 1980s implemented a highly subsidised rice scheme under which poor households were given five kilograms of rice per person per month, subject to a ceiling of 25 kilograms at Rs 2 per kg. The state government required two million tonnes of rice to implement the scheme. But it received only on one million tonne from the Union government.
The state government had to purchase another million tonne of rice from rice millers in the state at a negotiated price, which was higher than the procurement price offered by the Centre, but lower than the open market price.
A large number of studies have revealed that many poor households have been excluded from the PDS network, while many undeserving households have managed to get benefits from it.
Various policy measures have been implemented to streamline PDS. A revamped PDS was introduced in 1992 to make food grain easily accessible to people in tribal and hilly areas, by providing relatively higher subsidies.
Targeted PDS was launched in 1997 to focus on households below the poverty line (BPL).
Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) was introduced to cover the poorest of the poor.
Annapoorna Scheme was introduced in 2001 to distribute 10 kg of food grains free of cost to destitutes above the age of 65 years.
In 2013, the National Food Security Act (NFSA) was passed by Parliament to expand and legalise the entitlement.
Conventionally, a card holder has to go to a particular fair price shop (FPS) and that particular shop has to be open when s/he visits it. Stock must be available in the shop. The card holder should also have sufficient time to stand in the queue to purchase his quota. The card holder has to put with rough treatment at the hands of a FPS dealer.
These problems do not exist once ration cards become smart cards. A card holder can go to any shop which is open and has available stocks. In short, the scheme has become card holder-friendly and curbed the monopoly power of the FPS dealer. Some states other than Chhattisgarh are also trying to introduce such a scheme on an experimental basis.
More recently, the Government of India has introduced a scheme called ‘One Nation One Ration Card’ which enables migrant labourers to purchase rations from the place where they reside. In August 2021, it was operational in 34 states and Union territories.
The intentions of the scheme are good but there are some hurdles in its implementation which need to be addressed. These problems arise on account of variation in:
It is not clear whether a migrant labourer gets items provided in his/her native state or those in the state s/he has migrated to and what prices will s/he be able to purchase them.
The Centre must learn lessons from the experiences of different countries in order to make PDS sustainable in the long-run.
For instance, Sri Lanka recently shifted to organic manure from chemical fertiliser without required planning. Consequently, it had to face an acute food shortage due to a shortage of organic manure.
Some analysts have cautioned against excessive dependence on chemical fertiliser.
Phosphorus is an important input in the production of chemical fertiliser and about 70-80 per cent of known resources of phosphorus are available only in Morocco.
There is possibility that Morocco may manipulate the price of phosphorus.
Providing excessive subsidies and unemployment relief may make people dependent, as in the case of Venezuela and Zimbabwe.
It is better to teach a person how to catch a fish rather than give free fish to him / her.
Hence, the government should give the right amount of subsidy to deserving people.
The government has to increase livestock as in the case of Uruguay to make the food basket broad-based and nutritious. It has to see to it that the organic content in the soil is adequate, in order to make cultivation environmentally-friendly and sustainable in the long-run.
In short, India has transformed from a food-deficit state to a food-surplus one 75 years after independence. However, the government must adopt environmental-friendly measures to sustain this achievement.
Agroforestry is an intentional integration of trees on farmland.
Globally, it is practised by 1.2 billion people on 10 per cent area of total agricultural lands (over 1 billion hectares).
It is widely popular as ‘a low hanging fruit’ due to its multifarious tangible and intangible benefits.
The net carbon sequestered in agroforestry is 11.35 tonnes of carbon per ha
A panacea for global issues such as climate change, land degradation, pollution and food security, agroforestry is highlighted as a key strategy to fulfil several targets:
In 2017, a New York Times bestseller Project Drawdown published by 200 scientists around the world with a goal of reversing climate change, came up with the most plausible 100 solutions to slash–down greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Out of these 100 solutions, 11 strategies were highlighted under the umbrella of agroforestry such as:-
Nowadays, tree-based farming in India is considered a silver bullet to cure all issues.
It was promoted under the Green India mission of 2001, six out of eight missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and National Agroforestry and Bamboo Mission (NABM), 2017 to bring a third of the geographical area under tree cover and offsetting GHG emissions.
These long-term attempts by the Government of India have helped enhance the agroforestry area to 13.75 million hectares.
The net carbon sequestered in agroforestry is 11.35 tonnes of carbon per ha and carbon sequestration potential is 0.35 tonnes of carbon per ha per year at the country level, according to the Central Agroforestry Research Institute, Jhansi.
India will reduce an additional 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 by increasing tree cover. This extra tree cover could be achieved through agroforestry systems because of their ability to withstand minimum inputs under extreme situations.
Here are some examples which portray the role of agroforestry in achieving at least nine out of the 17 SDGs through sustainable food production, ecosystem services and economic benefits:
SDG 1 — No Poverty: Almost 736 million people still live in extreme poverty. Diversification through integrating trees in agriculture unlocks the treasure to provide multifunctional benefits.
Studies carried out in 2003 in the arid regions of India reported a 10-15 per cent increase in crop yield with Prosopis cineraria (khejari). Adoption of agroforestry increases income & production by reducing the cost of input & production.
SDG 2 — Zero hunger: Tree-based systems provide food and monetary returns. Traditional agroforestry systems like Prosopis cineraria and Madhuca longifolia (Mahua) provide edible returns during drought years known as “lifeline to the poor people”.
Studies showed that 26-50 per cent of households involved in tree products collection and selling act as a coping strategy to deal with hunger.
SDG 3 — Good health and well-being: Human wellbeing and health are depicted through the extent of healthy ecosystems and services they provide.
Agroforestry contributes increased access to diverse nutritious food, supply of medicine, clean air and reduces heat stress.
Vegetative buffers can filter airstreams of particulates by removing dust, gas, microbial constituents and heavy metals.
SDG 5 — Gender equality: Throughout the world around 3 billion people depend on firewood for cooking.
In this, women are the main collectors and it brings drudgery and health issues.
A study from India stated that almost 374 hours per year are spent by women for collection of firewood. Growing trees nearby provides easy access to firewood and diverts time to productive purposes.
SDG 6 — Clean Water and Sanitation: Water is probably the most vital resource for our survival. The inherent capacity of trees offers hydrological regulation as evapotranspiration recharges atmospheric moisture for rainfall; enhanced soil infiltration recharges groundwater; obstructs sediment flow; rainwater filtration by accumulation of heavy metals.
An extensive study in 35 nations published in 2017 concluded that 30 per cent of tree cover in watersheds resulted in improved sanitisation and reduced diarrheal disease.
SDG 7 — Affordable & Clean Energy: Wood fuels are the only source of energy to billions of poverty-stricken people.
Though trees are substitutes of natural forests, modern technologies in the form of biofuels, ethanol, electricity generation and dendro-biomass sources are truly affordable and clean.
Ideal agroforestry models possess fast-growing, high coppicing, higher calorific value and short rotation (2-3 years) characteristics and provide biomass of 200-400 tonnes per ha.
SDG 12 — Responsible consumption and production: The production of agricultural and wood-based commodities on a sustainable basis without depleting natural resources and as low as external inputs (chemical fertilisers and pesticides) to reduce the ecological footprints.
SDG 13 — Climate action: Globally, agricultural production accounts for up to 24 per cent of GHG emissions from around 22.2 million square km of agricultural area, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization.
A 2016 study depicted that conversion of agricultural land to agroforestry sequesters about 27.2± 13.5 tonnes CO2 equivalent per ha per year after establishment of systems.
Trees on farmland mitigate 109.34 million tonnes CO2 equivalent annually from 15.31 million ha, according to a 2017 report. This may offset a third of the total GHG emissions from the agriculture sector of India.
SDG 15 — Life on Land: Agroforestry ‘mimics the forest ecosystem’ to contribute conservation of flora and faunas, creating corridors, buffers to existing reserves and multi-functional landscapes.
Delivery of ecosystem services of trees regulates life on land. A one-hectare area of homegardens in Kerala was found to have 992 trees from 66 species belonging to 31 families, a recent study showed.
The report of the World Agroforestry Centre highlighted those 22 countries that have registered agroforestry as a key strategy in achieving their unconditional national contributions.
Recently, the Government of India has allocated significant financial support for promotion of agroforestry at grassroot level to make the Indian economy as carbon neutral. This makes agroforestry a low-hanging fruit to achieve the global goals.